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163-598: Today's city stands partly on the site of the ancient Antiochia ( Ancient Greek : Ἀντιόχεια , Antiókheia , also known as "Antioch on the Orontes"), which was founded in the fourth century BC by the Seleucid Empire . Antioch later became one of the Roman Empire 's largest cities, and was made the capital of the provinces of Syria and Coele-Syria . It was also an influential early center of Christianity ;

326-490: A Mission to Augustus . At Antioch Germanicus died in 19 AD, and his body was burnt in the forum. An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign. In 115 AD, during Trajan 's travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was convulsed by a huge earthquake . The landscape altered, and

489-573: A bastion of Shia learning and politics. By 1000 they had become the chief political and ideological challenge to Sunni Islam and the Abbasids, who by this time had fragmented into several governorships that, while recognizing caliphal authority from Baghdad, remained mostly autonomous. The caliph himself was under 'protection' of the Buyid Emirs who possessed all of Iraq and Western Iran, and were quietly Shia in their sympathies. Outside Iraq, all

652-678: A brief rule of the Tulunids ), Ikhshidids and Hamdanids . In 969, the city was reconquered for the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter . It soon became the seat of a dux , who commanded the forces of the local themes and was the most important officer on the Empire's eastern border, held by such men as Nikephoros Ouranos . In 1078, Philaretos Brachamios , an Armenian hero, seized power. He held

815-559: A campus called Tayfur Sökmen located in Serinyol district 15 km (9.3 mi), north of Antakya (centrum). Established in 1992, currently more than 32,000 students enrolled at the university. Besides the campus in Serinyol, MKU has its faculties spread out in all main districts of the province including Altınözü, Antakya, Belen, Dörtyol, Erzin, Hassa, İskenderun, Kırıkhan, Reyhanlı, Samandağ and Yayladağı. The long and varied history has created many architectural sites of interest. There

978-531: A carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The caliph's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the harem of Hulagu. Similarly to how a Mamluk Army was created by the Abbasids, a Mamluk Army was created by the Egypt-based Ayyubid dynasty . These Mamluks decided to directly overthrow their masters and came to power in 1250 in what

1141-466: A centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats (such as the Barmakid family) for governing the territories as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community). Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients). The political power of the caliphs was limited with

1304-531: A collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbasid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian-era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from Arabic , Persian , Mesopotamian, and Egyptian folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in

1467-403: A lament for Adonis , the doomed lover of Aphrodite . Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming. After being advised that the bones of third-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of

1630-833: A much more Persianate culture and statecraft. Only the central lands of Mesopotamia were under direct Abbasid control, with Palestine and the Hejaz often managed by the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, had begun to push Arab Muslims farther east in Anatolia . By the 920s, North Africa was lost to the Fatimid dynasty , a Shia sect tracing its roots to Muhammad's daughter Fatimah . The Fatimid dynasty took control of Idrisid and Aghlabid domains, advanced to Egypt in 969, and established their capital near Fustat in Cairo , which they built as

1793-739: A peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (most generally estimate between 200,000 and 250,000), making the city the third largest in the Roman Empire after Rome and Alexandria and one of the most important cities in the eastern Mediterranean . From the early fourth century, Antioch was the seat of the Count of the Orient , head of the Diocese of the East . The Romans provided the city with walls that encompassed almost 450 hectares (1,100 acres), of which one quarter

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1956-485: A result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include al-Jahiz , and Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen). As power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architectural styles changed also, from Greco-Roman tradition (which features elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style) to Eastern tradition which retained their independent architectural traditions from Mesopotamia and Persia. The Abbasid architecture

2119-471: A second language. In 1935, Turkish and Arab Muslims made more than 80% of the population. Antakya was home to one of the most ancient Jewish communities for over 2,200 years. Mount Habib-i Neccar (Habib An-Najar in Sura al-Yassin 36:13) and the city walls which climb the hillsides symbolise Antakya, making the city a formidable fortress built on a series of hills running north-east to south-west. Antakya

2282-742: A strong emphasis on trade, which facilitated economic prosperity in Antioch. The city became known for its diverse markets, contributing to the flow of goods and ideas between the Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire. The decline of Arab rule in Antioch began in the late 9th century with increasing pressure from the Byzantine forces. The city changed hands several times during the Byzantine-Arab wars , Before finally, in 969 AD, under

2445-489: A third walled "city", which was finished by Antiochus III the Great . A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis . From west to east the whole was about 6 kilometres (4 miles) in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens. The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from

2608-486: A whole shared in both these titles to fame. Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia ; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamon . The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in

2771-457: A word which would ordinarily mean all human beings of any age, sex, or social status , seemingly indicating a decline in the population since the first century. Chrysostom also says in one of his homilies on the Gospel of Matthew , which were delivered between 386 and 393, that in his own time there were 100,000 Christians in Antioch, a figure which may refer to orthodox Christians who belonged to

2934-463: Is twinned with: Antioch Antioch on the Orontes ( / ˈ æ n t i . ɒ k / ; Ancient Greek : Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου , romanized :  Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou , pronounced [anti.ó.kʰeː.a] ) was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period , it served as

3097-465: Is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture". Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. Their works on Aristotle were a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in

3260-467: Is a provincial capital of considerable importance as the centre of a large district. The draining of Lake Amik and development of land have caused the region's economy to grow in wealth and productivity. The town is a lively shopping and business centre with many restaurants, cinemas and other amenities. This district is centred on a large park opposite the governor's building and the central avenue Kurtuluş Caddesı . The tea gardens, cafes and restaurants in

3423-448: Is considered Levantine rather than Turkish . The cuisine offers plenty of meals, where beef and lamb are mainly used. Popular dishes include the typical Turkish kebab , served with spices and onions in flat unleavened bread, with yoghurt as ali nazik kebab, oruk, kaytaz böreği and katıklı ekmek. Hot, spicy food is a feature of this part of Turkey, along with Turkish coffee and local specialties. Here are some savoury foods: Antakya

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3586-655: Is known as the Mamluk Sultanate . In 1261, following the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who

3749-516: Is much for visitors to see in Antakya, although many buildings have been lost in the rapid growth and redevelopment of the city in recent decades. With its rich architectural heritage, Antakya is a member of the Norwich -based European Association of Historic Towns and Regions. The Roman bridge (thought to date from the era of Diocletian ) was destroyed in 1972 during the widening and channelling of

3912-715: Is somewhat analogous to the manner in which several popes, heads of the Roman Catholic Church remained "Bishop of Rome" even while residing in Avignon , in present-day France, in the fourteenth century. The Maronite Church, which has also moved the seat away to Bkerké , Lebanon, continues the Antiochene liturgical tradition and the use of the Syro-Aramaic language in their liturgies. Emperor Constantine who had decriminalised Christianity in 313 , begun

4075-411: Is the subject of Letitia Elizabeth Landon 's poem [REDACTED] Antioch . (1836) in which she reflects of the superiority of trade and commerce over war and conflict. The city suffered repeated outbreaks of cholera due to inadequate infrastructure for sanitation. Later the city developed and rapidly resumed much of its old importance when a railway was built along the lower Orontes Valley. Antioch

4238-674: Is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age. Contemporary accounts state Mongol soldiers looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Priceless books from Baghdad's thirty-six public libraries were torn apart, the looters using their leather covers as sandals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground. The House of Wisdom (the Grand Library of Baghdad), containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy,

4401-548: The Suda , it might be named after his son Antiochus . He is reputed to have built sixteen Antiochs. Seleucus founded Antioch on a site chosen through ritual means. An eagle , the bird of Zeus, had been given a piece of sacrificial meat and the city was founded on the site to which the eagle carried the offering. Seleucus did this on the 22nd day of the month of Artemísios in the twelfth year of his reign, equivalent to May 300 BC. Antioch soon rose above Seleucia Pieria to become

4564-725: The 253 siege of Antioch when Shapur I defeated the Roman army and the later Battle of Antioch (613) where the Persians were successful at capturing the city for the last time. It was a key city during the early history of Christianity , in particular that of the Syriac Orthodox Church , the Antiochian Orthodox Church and the Maronite Church , as well as during the spread of Islam and

4727-552: The Afrin rivers; the lake in the plain was drained in 1980 by a French company. At the same time channels were built to widen the Orontes and let it pass neatly through the city centre. The Orontes is joined in Antakya by the Hacı Kürüş stream to the north-east of the city near the church of St Peter, and the Hamşen which runs down from Habib-i Neccar to the south-west, under Memekli Bridge near

4890-556: The Alevi and Alawite traditions, in 'Harbiye' there is a place to honour the saint Hızır . Numerous tombs of saints, of both Sunni and Alawite , are located throughout the city. Several small Christian communities are active in the city, with the largest church being St. Peter and St. Paul on Hürriyet Avenue. With its long history of spiritual and religious movements, Antakya is a place of pilgrimage for Christians. The Jewish community of Antakya had shrunk to 14 members in 2014. In 2023,

5053-751: The An Lushan Rebellion against An Lushan . The Abbasids, or "Black Flags" as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí , "The Black-robed Tazi" ( 黑衣大食 ) ("Tazi" being a borrowing from Persian Tāzī , the word for "Arab"). Al-Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al-Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from

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5216-576: The Battle of Antioch , after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia. Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus . Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint

5379-720: The Battle of the Iron Bridge . The city became known in Arabic as أنطاكية ( ʾAnṭākiya ). Since the Umayyad Caliphate was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline. After the demise of Umayyad rule, Antioch became part of the Abbasid empire (except for

5542-620: The Circus Maximus in Rome and other circus buildings throughout the empire. Measuring more than 490 metres (1,610 feet) in length and 30 metres (98 feet) of width, the Circus could house up to 80,000 spectators. Zarmanochegas (Zarmarus) a monk of the Sramana tradition of India, according to Strabo and Dio Cassius , met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch around 13 AD as part of

5705-598: The Crusades . From "The Acts of the Apostles", Chapter 11 Verse 26 “And when he had found him, he brought him unto Antioch. And it came to pass, that a whole year they assembled themselves with the church, and taught much people. And the disciples were called Christians first in Antioch.” In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius , Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during

5868-559: The Golden Age of Islam . It was also during this period that Islamic manuscript production reached its height. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, Abbasid artisans pioneered and perfected manuscript techniques that became standards of the practice. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom , as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it an international reputation as

6031-625: The Great Church as opposed to members of other groups such as Arians and Apollinarians , or to all Christians of any persuasion. When the emperor Julian visited in 362 on a detour to the Sasanian Empire , he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of Constantinople . Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which Ammianus Marcellinus implies lived quite harmoniously together. However, Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with

6194-873: The Habib-i Najjar Mosque , which they believe to contain the tomb of Habib the Carpenter , mentioned in the Surah Yā-Sīn of the Quran . Two routes from the Mediterranean Sea , lying through the Orontes river gorge and the Belen Pass , converge in the plain of the Antioch Lake, now called Lake Amik , and are met there by: A settlement called "Meroe" pre-dated Antioch. A shrine of

6357-597: The Hatay Province , caused an exodus of Christians and Alawites from Antioch east to the French Mandate. The district Antakya was created in 2013 from part of the former central district of Hatay. A British traveller visiting Antakya in 1798 reported that generally, Turkish was spoken, while, by contrast, the prevalent language in Aleppo at the time was Arabic. Most Alawites and Armenians spoke Turkish as

6520-408: The Hellenistic period , apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for being "a populous city, full of most erudite men and rich in the most liberal studies", but

6683-545: The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic . Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced

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6846-622: The Islamic prophet Muhammad . It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE ), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132  AH ). The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in

7009-700: The Mustansiriya School , in an attempt to eclipse the Seljuq-era Nizamiyya built by Nizam al Mulk . In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia . During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus' ) in the west. Hulagu Khan 's destruction of Baghdad in 1258

7172-406: The Orontes south into Syria and occupied the area. The city of Antioch was founded in 300 BC, after the death of Alexander, by the Seleucid emperor Seleucus I Nicator . It played an important role as one of the largest cities in the Seleucid, Roman , and Byzantine empires. The city swapped hands between the Byzantines and the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd century . It was the battleground for

7335-412: The Orontes . The city is served from Hatay Airport . Antakya has one male professional football club, Hatayspor , who play in the Süper Lig . There is also a female professional team called Hatay Büyükşehir Belediyesi . Hatay Büyükşehir Belediyespor , a woman's basketball team, is also present, and plays in the Turkish Women's Basketball League . The cuisine of Antakya is renowned. Its cuisine

7498-436: The Orontes River and did not overlap in habitation with the modern city. Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great 's generals, as one of the tetrapoleis of Seleucis of Syria . Seleucus encouraged Greeks from all over the Mediterranean to settle in the city. The city's location offered geographical, military, and economic benefits to its occupants; Antioch

7661-459: The Ottomans in 1517, who would integrate it to the Aleppo Eyalet then to the Aleppo Vilayet . The city joined the Hatay State under the French Mandate before joining the Turkish Republic . On 6 February 2023, the city was heavily damaged by two powerful earthquakes with their epicentre in Kahramanmaraş . Some of the historical sites, including the Church of St Paul , have been destroyed. The earthquakes destroyed several neighbourhoods in

7824-402: The Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in Transoxiana and Greater Khorasan , and the succeeding Saffarid dynasty of Iran. The Saffarids , from Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, and the Tulunids took control of most of Syria. The trend of weakening of the central power and strengthening of the minor caliphates on the periphery continued. An exception

7987-527: The Treaty of Deabolis Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112. After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to Roger of Salerno , who helped rebuild Antioch after an earthquake destroyed its foundations in 1114. With the death of Roger at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119, the role of regent was assumed by Baldwin II of Jerusalem , lasting until 1126. In 1126 Bohemond II arrived from Apulia to gain regency over Antioch. In 1130 Bohemond

8150-528: The siege of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of al-Musta'sim . The Abbasid line of rulers re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Musta'in , the dynasty continued to claim religious authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III . The Abbasid caliphs were descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , one of

8313-669: The 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights . This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland . Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin , Sinbad and Ali Baba . A famous example of Islamic poetry on romance

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8476-442: The 13th-century Mongol conquests. Antioch never recovered as a major city, with much of its former role falling to the port city of Alexandretta ( İskenderun ). An account of both cities as they were in 1675 appears in the diary of the English naval chaplain Henry Teonge . The city was initially the centre of the Sanjak of Antakya, part of the Damascus Eyalet . It was laterly centre of Sanjak of Antakya in Aleppo Eyalet . It

8639-424: The Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the Old Book of Tang , the most important being those of al-Saffah, al-Mansur, and Harun al-Rashid. In 762, al-Mansur suppressed a rebellion in the Hejaz led by al-Nafs al-Zakiyya , a descendant from Ali ibn Abi Talib , whose challenge to the Abbasid claim to leadership was based on his Alid lineage and thus presented a serious political threat. He

8802-447: The Abbasids for the titular authority of the Islamic ummah . They commanded some support in the Shia sections of Baghdad (such as Karkh ), although Baghdad was the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the Buyid and Seljuq eras. The challenge of the Fatimids only ended with their downfall in the 12th century. Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by

8965-399: The Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again. While the caliph al-Mustarshid was the first caliph to build an army capable of meeting a Seljuk army in battle, he was nonetheless defeated and assassinated in 1135. The caliph al-Muqtafi was the first Abbasid Caliph to regain the full military independence of

9128-401: The BBC reported that at least 1,200 buildings in the city center and the districts of Kırıkhan and İskenderun were razed. Officials said "almost all" houses in the Cebrail District had collapsed. Many historical sites, including churches and mosques, were destroyed, St. Paul's Church being one of them. The historic Antakya Synagogue and Hatay State Assembly Building were also destroyed. In

9291-403: The Barmakids, who had wielded administrative power on his behalf. During the same period, several factions began either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire. Still, the reigns of al-Rashid and his sons were considered to be the apex of the Abbasids. Domestically, Harun pursued policies similar to those of his father Al-Mahdi. He released many of

9454-426: The Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al-Sabi' , and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned with the rule of Baha' al-Daula , the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al-Qadir , for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto . The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent

9617-421: The Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas , the city was captured after the siege of Antioch (968–969) by the Byzantine general Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter . It soon became the seat of a doux , the civil governor of the homonymous theme , but also the seat of the somewhat more important Domestic of the Schools of the Orient , the supreme military commander of the imperial forces on

9780-441: The Byzantines. Though his attempt to seize Constantinople failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm, his military excursions were generally successful, culminating with a resounding victory in the Sack of Amorium . The Byzantines responded by sacking Damietta in Egypt, and Al-Mutawakkil responded by sending his troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated in 863. Even by 820,

9943-413: The Great ), erected a long stoa on the east, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ( c.  63 –12 BC) encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this. One of the most famous Roman additions to the city was its hippodrome , the Circus of Antioch . This chariot racing venue was probably built in the reign of Augustus, when the city had more than half a million inhabitants; it was modelled on

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10106-429: The Mongol conquests of the 13th century altered the main trade routes from the far east, as they encouraged merchants to take the overland route through Mongol territory to the Black Sea, reducing the prosperity of Antioch. Surrounding the city were a number of Greek, Syrian, Georgian, Armenian, and Latin monasteries. In 1100, Tancred became the regent of Antioch after his uncle and predecessor Bohemond I of Antioch

10269-429: The New Testament asserts that the name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch. The city gained much ecclesiastical importance in the Byzantine Empire . Captured by Umar ibn al-Khattab in the seventh century, the medieval Antakiyah ( Arabic : أنطاكية , ʾAnṭākiya ) was conquered or re-conquered several times: by the Byzantines in 969, the Seljuks in 1084, the Crusaders in 1098, the Mamluks in 1268, and eventually

10432-416: The Persian faction known as the Buyids from Daylam swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of Miskawayh , they began distributing iqtas ( fiefs in the form of tax farms) to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years. The loss of Abbasid power to the Buyids would shift as the Seljuks would take over from

10595-412: The Persian sack in 538, by Chosroes . In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I , and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status. Theodosius placed Antioch under Constantinople's rule when he divided the Roman Empire. Antioch and its port, Seleucia Pieria , were severely damaged by the great earthquake of 526 . Seleucia Pieria, which

10758-412: The Persians. At the end of the eighth century, the Abbasids found they could no longer keep together a polity from Baghdad, which had grown larger than that of Rome . In 793 the Zaydi -Shia dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim started

10921-407: The Syrian capital. Xenaeus (Ξεναῖος) was the architect who built the walls of Antioch during Seleucus I reign. The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the grid plan of Alexandria by the architect Xenarius . Libanius describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300. 17). The citadel was on Mount Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low ground to

11084-410: The Umayyads and 'Alids his brother Al-Hadi had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of the Quraysh . Large scale hostilities broke out with Byzantium , and under his rule, the Abbasid Empire reached its peak. However, Harun's decision to split the succession proved to be damaging to the longevity of the empire. After Rashid's death, the empire was split by a civil war between

11247-434: The Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748. Ibrahim was captured by Marwan and was killed. The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim's brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah , who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the battle near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph . After this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he

11410-411: The administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it. It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of Al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun , that its reputation and power were created. The position of wazir (vizier) developed in this period. It

11573-434: The aftermath, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan promised to an immediate reconstruction of the affected areas. During a visit to the city in September 2023, The New York Times reported that heavily buildings were still being demolished and no large-scale reconstruction works were observed. Many damaged buildings remained standing but abandoned while survivors continue to live in tents. Hatay's mayor, Lutfu Savas, said only half of

11736-694: The aim to break the siege only four days after its capture by the crusaders, Bohemond I became its overlord. It remained the capital of the Latin Principality of Antioch for nearly two centuries. In 1268 it fell to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Baybars after another siege . Baibars proceeded to massacre the Christian population. In addition to suffering the ravages of war, the city lost its commercial importance because trade routes to East Asia moved north following

11899-756: The army barracks. Flora includes the bay trees and myrtle . There are 95 neighbourhoods in Antakya District: Antakya's climate is classified as hot-summer Mediterranean ( Köppen : Csa ) or dry-summer humid subtropical ( Trewartha : Cf or wet Cs ). The city experiences hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters; though its higher altitude allows for lower temperatures than the coast. Highest recorded temperature:45.2 °C (113.4 °F) on 13 August 2023 Lowest recorded temperature:−11.8 °C (10.8 °F) on 14 January 1950 Mustafa Kemal University , abbreviated as MKU, has several faculties including Engineering and Medicine, while having

12062-461: The autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the Soomro Emirs that had gained control of Sindh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Mansura . Mahmud of Ghazni took

12225-424: The blood of Al-Musta'sim , a direct descendant of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shia of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the death of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala ; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al-Musta'sim wrapped in

12388-512: The building of the Domus Aurea or Great Church in 327 which served for the next two centuries as the leading church of Antioch. John Chrysostom writes that when Ignatius of Antioch was bishop in the city, the dêmos, probably meaning the number of free adult men and women without counting children and slaves, numbered 200,000. In a letter written in 363, Libanius says the city contains 150,000 anthrôpoi (plural of anthropos, human )

12551-583: The caliph al-Amin and his brother al-Ma'mun , who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two-year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of Al-Amin in 813. Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites , which was supported by the Byzantines. Al-Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and

12714-587: The caliph al-Qa'im was unable to defeat him without outside help. Toghril Beg , the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty. Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans Alp Arslan and Malikshah , as well as their vizier Nizam al-Mulk , took up residence in Persia, but held power over

12877-459: The caliph al-Radi (934–941) was forced to acknowledge their power by creating the position of "Prince of Princes" ( amir al-umara ). In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew, reaching a climax when al-Radi was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to the non-Arab Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . Al-Mustakfi had a short reign from 944 to 946, and it was during this period that

13040-506: The caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as al-Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts. Under Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad was renowned for its bookstores, which proliferated after the making of paper was introduced. Chinese papermakers had been among those taken prisoner by the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in 751. As prisoners of war, they were dispatched to Samarkand , where they helped set up

13203-676: The caliphate were minimal while the Byzantine Empire was fighting Abbasid rule in Syria and Anatolia , with focus shifting primarily to internal matters; Abbasid governors exerted greater autonomy and, using this increasing power, began to make their positions hereditary. While Baghdad remained the official capital, Harun al-Rashid chose to reside in Raqqa from 796 until the end of his reign. In 803, for reasons that remain unclear, Harun al-Rashid turned on and imprisoned or killed most of

13366-538: The caliphate, with the help of his vizier Ibn Hubayra . After nearly 250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, he successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the siege of Baghdad (1157) , thus securing Iraq for the Abbasids. The reign of al-Nasir (d. 1225) brought the caliphate back into power throughout Iraq, based in large part on the Sufi futuwwa organizations that the caliph headed. Al-Mustansir built

13529-561: The caliphs were wary of the Alid sympathies in the city and did not always reside here. In 752, al-Saffah built a new city called al-Hashimiyya, at an uncertain location, most likely near Kufa. Later that same year, he moved to Anbar , where he built a new settlement for his Khurasani soldiers and a palace for himself. It was al-Saffah's successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) who firmly consolidated Abbasid rule and faced down internal challenges. His uncle, Abdallah ibn Ali ,

13692-448: The capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith , such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr", stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established

13855-590: The capital of the Seleucid Empire and later as regional capital to both the Roman and Byzantine Empire . During the Crusades , Antioch served as the capital of the Principality of Antioch , one of four Crusader states that were founded in the Levant . Its inhabitants were known as Antiochenes . The modern city of Antakya , in Hatay Province of Turkey , was named after the ancient city, which lies in ruins on

14018-611: The city and left thousands homeless. The death toll in Hatay Province, which includes Antakya, was estimated at over 20,000. Humans have occupied the area of Antioch since the Chalcolithic ( 6th millennium BCE ), as revealed by archaeological excavations of Alalakh , among others. The Macedonian King Alexander the Great , after defeating the Achaemenid Empire in the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE, followed

14181-732: The city into the Seljuk Empire . Yagisiyan was appointed governor. He became increasingly independent within the tumultuous years following Malik-Shah's death in 1092. The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch conquered the city in June 1098 after a siege lasting eight months on their way to Jerusalem. At this time, the bulk of far eastern trade traveled through Egypt, but in the second half of the 12th century Nur ed-Din and later Saladin brought order to Muslim Syria, opening up long-distance trade routes, including to Antioch and on to its new port, St Symeon , which had replaced Seleucia Pieria. However,

14344-575: The city of Raqqa , along the Euphrates . Finally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race-courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere. Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. Al-Ukhaidir Fortress is a fine example of this type of building, which has stables, living quarters, and

14507-603: The city until the Seljuk Turks captured it from him in 1084. The Sultanate of Rum held it only fourteen years before the Crusaders arrived. The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch between October 1097 and June 1098 during the First Crusade resulted in its fall. The Crusaders caused significant damage, including a massacre of its population, both Christian and Muslim. Following the defeat of Seljuk forces arriving with

14670-664: The city went into a precipitous decline. During the Abbasid period (750–969 AD), Antioch continued to thrive as a hub of commerce and culture. Under the Abbasids , closer relations were developed with Byzantium, but it was not until the Fatimids opened up the Mediterranean for shipping from the end of the fourth/tenth century that the affairs of western Europe and the Near East began to interact once again. The Abbasids placed

14833-558: The city's annual feast of Apollo the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a goose, showing the decay of paganism in the town. The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his billeted troops, wrote Ammianus . The soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan Gallic soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye. Julian's piety

14996-487: The city's coins. Io may have been a small early colony of trading Greeks ( Javan ). John Malalas also mentions an archaic village, Bottia , in the plain by the river. Alexander the Great is said to have camped on the site of Antioch and dedicated an altar to Zeus Bottiaeus; it lay in the northwest of the future city. This account is found only in the writings of Libanius , a fourth-century orator from Antioch, and may be legend intended to enhance Antioch's status. But

15159-422: The civil service. In 794, Jafa al-Barmak built the first paper mill in Baghdad, and from there the technology circulated. Harun required that paper be employed in government dealings, since something recorded on paper could not easily be changed or removed, and eventually, an entire street in Baghdad's business district was dedicated to selling paper and books. One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy"

15322-435: The continued repulsing of Byzantine forays. In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab origin people, known as Mamluks . This force, created by al-Ma'mun and his brother and successor al-Mu'tasim (833–842), prevented the further disintegration of the empire. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided

15485-720: The dominant population up to the Crusades. As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the Komnenian restoration , Dux of Antioch & Domestic of the Schools of the East Philaretos Brachamios held the city until Suleiman ibn Qutalmish , the emir of Rum , captured it from him in 1084. Two years later, Suleiman was killed fighting against Tutush , the brother of the Seljuk Sultan , who annexed

15648-483: The downward slide by using non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period, officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs. By the 870s, Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun . In the East, governors decreased their ties to the center as well. The Saffarids of Herat and the Samanids of Bukhara began breaking away around this time, cultivating

15811-553: The earliest missionaries. Evangelized by, among others, Peter himself, according to the tradition upon which the Patriarchate of Antioch still rests its claim for primacy, its converts were the first to be called Christians. This is not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia , to which Barnabas and Paul of Tarsus later travelled. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became

15974-524: The easterly region of Khorasan , far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence. The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa , modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Babylonian capital city of Babylon and Sassanid city of Ctesiphon . Baghdad became the center of science , culture , and invention in what became known as

16137-544: The eastern frontier. Sometimes both offices were held by the same person, usually military officers such as Nikephoros Ouranos , or Philaretos Brachamios , who managed to retain the integrity of the eastern borderline after the Seljuk conquest of Anatolia. The size of the Melkite community increased during that time due to immigration from Christians from Fatimid Egypt but also other parts of the Near East and Christians remained

16300-472: The emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days. He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned. Commodus (r. 177–192 AD) had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch. In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the Persians under Shapur I , and many of the people were slain in

16463-433: The empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some 200 years before . However, Antioch's city councilmen showed themselves unwilling to shore up Antioch's food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them. Further, Julian was surprised and dismayed when at

16626-599: The estimated 38,000 buildings registered to be dismantled had been fulfilled. In Gülderen, there were ongoing works to build 2,300 apartment units in 122 blocks. Antakya is located on the banks of the Orontes River ( Turkish : Asi Nehri ), approximately 22 km (14 mi) inland from the Mediterranean coast. The city is in a valley surrounded by mountains, the Nur Mountains (ancient Amanos) to

16789-408: The external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas . It occurred in 148 BC and did immense damage. Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house

16952-400: The first Arab paper mill. In time, paper replaced parchment as the medium for writing, and the production of books greatly increased. These events had an academic and societal impact that could be broadly compared to the introduction of the printing press in the West. Paper aided in communication and record-keeping, it also brought a new sophistication and complexity to businesses, banking, and

17115-483: The first major changes effected by Abbasid rule was the move of the caliphate's center of power from Syria to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). This was closer to the Persian mawali support base of the Abbasids and the move addressed their demand for reduced Arab dominance in the empire. However, no definitive capital was yet selected. In these early Abbasid years, Kufa generally served as the administrative capital, but

17278-606: The following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64 BC, but remained a civitas libera . The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Julius Caesar visited it in 47 BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at

17441-531: The goddess Anat , called by Herodotus the " Persian Artemis ", was located here. This site was included in the eastern suburbs of Antioch. There was a village on the spur of Mount Silpius named Io , or Iopolis . This name was always adduced as evidence by Antiochenes ( e.g. Libanius ) eager to affiliate themselves to the Attic Ionians —an eagerness which is illustrated by the Athenian types used on

17604-409: The government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the people they claimed to rule. Al-Mu'tasim's reign marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with the Mamluks and promptly restarted the war with

17767-461: The insistence of Octavian , whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Strabo , writing in the reign of Augustus and the first years of Tiberius, states that Antioch is not much smaller than Seleucia and Alexandria; Alexandria had been said by Diodorus Siculus in the mid-first century BC to have 300,000 free inhabitants, which would mean that Antioch

17930-488: The knowledge gained from the Roman , Chinese, Indian , Persian , Egyptian , North African, Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek civilizations. According to Huff, "[i]n virtually every field of endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth—the Caliphate's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance." The best-known fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights ,

18093-464: The last Jew in the city announced that he was leaving the city after a devastating earthquake . It has a reputation in Turkey as a place for spells, fortune telling, miracles and spirits. Local crafts include a soap scented with the oil of bay tree . On 6 February 2023, Antakya suffered heavy damage as a result of a major earthquake . Many parts of the city were totally destroyed. As of 7 February,

18256-426: The mass immigration of people from eastern Anatolia in the 1980s and 1990s that radically swelled the populations of Mediterranean cities such as Adana and Mersin . Both Turkish and Arabic are still widely spoken in Antakya, although written Arabic is rarely used. A mixed community of faiths and denominations co-exist peacefully here. While almost all the inhabitants are Muslim , a substantial proportion adhere to

18419-596: The name "Christian" first emerged in Antioch. The city declined to relative insignificance during the Middle Ages due to warfare, repeated earthquakes, and a change in trade routes . The city still lends its name to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch , one of the most important modern churches of the Levant and the eastern Mediterranean. The city also attracts Muslim pilgrims who visit

18582-457: The nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). According to ancient tradition, Antioch was settled by 5,500 Athenians and Macedonians, together with an unknown number of native Syrians. This number probably refers to free adult citizens, so that the total number of free Greek settlers including women and children was probably between 17,000 and 25,000. About 6 kilometres (4 miles) west and beyond

18745-517: The neighbourhood of Harbiye are popular destinations, particularly for the variety of meze in the restaurants. The Orontes River can be malodorous when water is low in summer. Rather than formal nightlife, in the summer heat, people will stay outside until late at the night to walk with their families and friends, and munch on snacks. Its location near the Syrian border makes Antakya more cosmopolitan than many cities in Turkey. It did not attract

18908-425: The nickname axeman , wrote Ammianus. The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard . Julian's successor Valens endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of his brother and co-emperor Valentinian I on a central column, and reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood until

19071-484: The north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I Soter , which, from an expression of Strabo , appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began

19234-513: The northwest and Mount Keldağ (Jebel Akra) to the south, with the 440 m high Mount Habib-i Neccar (the ancient Mount Silpius ) forming its eastern limits. The mountains are a source of a green marble . Antakya is at the northern edge of the Dead Sea Rift and vulnerable to earthquakes. The plain of Amik to the north-east of the city is fertile soil watered by the Orontes, the Karasu and

19397-516: The only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period that have come down to us are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic ; and, except Apollo and Daphne , the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce . The epithet "Golden" suggests that

19560-637: The outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun . With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs . By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took temporal power. When the amir and former slave Basasiri took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in 1056–57,

19723-492: The population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 BC, and Demetrius II Nicator in 129 BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes the Great to occupy the city in 83 BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII Asiaticus in 65 BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in

19886-474: The region also appear to have served as "capitals" under either al-Saffah or al-Mansur prior to the founding of Baghdad. Al-Mansur centralised the judicial administration, and later, Harun al-Rashid established the institution of Chief Qadi to oversee it. The Umayyad empire was mostly Arab; however, the Abbasids progressively became made up of more and more converted Muslims in which the Arabs were only one of many ethnicities. The Abbasids had depended heavily on

20049-531: The region. The city remained an important urban center, with its multicultural population including Christians, Muslims, and Jews living together, although there were periods of tension and conflict. However, since the Umayyad dynasty was unable to penetrate the Anatolian Plateau , Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350 years, so that

20212-520: The return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashemites , during the reign of Umar II . During the reign of Marwan II , this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim al-Imam , the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khorasan (Eastern Persia), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shia Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in

20375-604: The rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks , who captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function in much of the caliphate, the dynasty retained control of its Mesopotamian domain during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi and extended into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir . The Abbasids' age of cultural revival and fruition ended in 1258 with

20538-669: The seat of one of the five original patriarchates , along with Constantinople , Jerusalem , Alexandria , and Rome (see Pentarchy ). Today five churches use the title of patriarch of Antioch for their prime bishops: one Oriental Orthodox (the Syriac Orthodox Church ); three Eastern Catholic (the Maronite , Syriac Catholic , and Melkite Greek Catholic Churches ); and one Eastern Orthodox (the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch ). This title has been maintained though most of them have moved their seat to Damascus . This

20701-462: The spirit of ijtihad . They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas . Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi , al-Farabi , and Avicenna , combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as

20864-454: The story is not unlikely in itself. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his generals, the Diadochi , divided up the territory he had conquered. After the Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC, Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria, and he proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father Antiochus ; according to

21027-488: The suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis . A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian . The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the ancient world; and indeed Antioch as

21190-528: The support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads. The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their viziers to usher in

21353-464: The temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up Constantine's Great Church, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident. Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochene; Julian had wanted

21516-457: The theatre. The city was burned and some 100,000 inhabitants were killed while the rest were deported to Shapur‘s newly built city of Gundeshapur It was recaptured by the Roman emperor Valerian the following year. Antioch was a chief center of early Christianity during Roman times. The city had a large population of Jewish origin in a quarter called the Kerateion , and so attracted

21679-613: The title of sultan , as opposed to the "amir" that had been in more common usage, signifying the Ghaznavid Empire 's independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph's name in the Friday khutba , or struck it off their coinage. The Isma'ili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested

21842-555: The treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the Taurus Mountains , culminating with a victory at the Battle of Krasos and the massive invasion of 806 , led by Rashid himself. Rashid's navy also proved successful, taking Cyprus . Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Khorasan and died while there. Military operations by

22005-597: The victor over the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab, was the most serious potential rival for leadership and al-Mansur sent Abu Muslim, the Khurasani revolutionary commander, against him in 754. After Abu Muslim successfully defeated him, al-Mansur then turned to eliminate Abu Muslim himself. He arranged to have him arrested and executed in 755. On the western frontier, the Abbasids were unable to re-assert caliphal control over

22168-694: The walls; but its glory was past. Another earthquake in 588 destroyed the Domus Aureus of Constantine, whereafter the church of Cassian became the most important church of Antioch. During the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , the Emperor Heraclius confronted the invading Persian army of Khosrow II outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan at

22331-539: The western and central Maghreb, which the Umayyads had lost in the 740s. One member of the Umayyad dynasty, Abd ar-Rahman, also managed to escape the purge of his family and managed to establish independent in rule in al-Andalus (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 756, founding the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba . In 756, al-Mansur had also sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tang dynasty in

22494-551: The year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison. On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim , rising from Khorasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard . Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating

22657-408: The youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus , "The Abbasid revolt

22820-489: Was Layla and Majnun , an originally Arabic story which was further developed by Iranian , Azerbaijani and other poets in the Persian , Azerbaijani , and Turkish languages. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet . Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to

22983-424: Was Simeon Stylites , who lived an extremely ascetic life atop a pillar for 40 years some 65 kilometres (40 miles) east of Antioch . His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo . During the Byzantine era, great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch. In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius , Antioch

23146-423: Was about this size in Strabo's time. Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus , other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian . The Roman client, King Herod (most likely the great builder Herod

23309-530: Was already fighting a losing battle against continual silting, never recovered. A second earthquake affected Antioch in 528. Justinian I renamed Antioch Theopolis ("City of God") and restored many of its public buildings, but the destructive work was completed in 540 by the Persian king, Khosrau I , who deported the population to a newly built city in Persian Mesopotamia, Weh Antiok Khosrow . Antioch lost as many as 300,000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of

23472-417: Was conquered by Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah of the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge , marking the beginning of Islamic influence in the region. The city became known in Arabic as أنطاكية Anṭākiyah . Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 AD), Antioch served as a significant military and administrative center. The Umayyads fortified the city, utilizing it as a base for operations in

23635-415: Was defeated by an Abbasid army led by Isa ibn Musa . It was after this victory, in 762, that al-Mansur finally established a proper Abbasid capital, Baghdad – officially called Madinat al-Salam ('City of Peace') – located on the Tigris River . Prior to this, he had continued to consider multiple sites for a capital, including al-Hashimiyya, which he used as a capital for a while. Various other sites in

23798-437: Was destroyed. Claims have been made that the Tigris ran red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed. Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed in abundance, sparing no one, not even children. The caliph Al-Musta'sim was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. Ironically, Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if

23961-402: Was distasteful to the Antiochenes, even to those who kept the old religion. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated Neoplatonist circles. The irony of Julian's enthusiasm for large scale animal sacrifice could not have escaped the hungry Antiochenes. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only

24124-482: Was finally kaza centre in Sanjak of Aleppo , part of Aleppo Vilayet . In 1822 (and again in 1872 ), Antakya was hit by an earthquake and damaged. When Egyptian general Ibrahim Pasha established his headquarters in the city in 1835, it had only some 5,000 inhabitants. Supporters hoped the city might develop thanks to the Euphrates Valley Railway , which was supposed to link it to the port of Sueida (now Samandağı ), but this plan never came to fruition. This scheme

24287-431: Was forced to accede to a peace accord, the Treaty of Devol which stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However, Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Deabolis in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1156 that it truly became a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire . Six months after

24450-400: Was heavily involved in the spice trade and lay within close reach of the Silk Road and the Royal Road . The city was the capital of the Seleucid Empire from 240 BC until 63 BC, when the Romans took control, making it the capital of the province of Syria and later of Coele Syria . During the late Hellenistic and Roman Principate periods, Antioch's population may have reached

24613-409: Was initially akin to a secretary, but under the tenure of the Barmakids , an Iranian family close to the Abbasids, the position became powerful and Harun al-Rashid delegated state affairs to them for many years. This resulted in a more ceremonial role for many Abbasid caliphs relative to their time under the Umayyads; the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the Caliph's aristocracy

24776-407: Was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles. Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire, beginning with the creation of Baghdad in 762, which was planned as a walled city with four gates, and a mosque and palace in the center. Al-Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned

24939-403: Was lured into an ambush by Leo I, Prince of Armenia who allied with the Danishmend Gazi Gümüshtigin , and was killed in the subsequent battle. Abbasids The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire ( / ə ˈ b æ s ɪ d , ˈ æ b ə s ɪ d / ; Arabic : الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة , romanized :  al-Khilāfa al-ʿAbbāsiyya ) was the third caliphate to succeed

25102-457: Was mountainous, leaving 300 ha (750 acres) – about one-fifth the area of Rome within the Aurelian Walls . The city was also the main center of Hellenistic Judaism at the end of the Second Temple period . As one of the cities of the pentarchy , Antioch was called "the cradle of Christianity " as a result of its longevity and the pivotal role that it played in the emergence of early Christianity . The Christian New Testament asserts that

25265-432: Was originally centred on the east bank of the river. Since the 19th century, the city has expanded with new neighbourhoods built on the plains across the river to the south-west, and four bridges connect the old and new cities. Many of the buildings of the last two decades are styled as concrete blocks, and Antakya has lost much of its classic beauty. The narrow streets of the old city can become clogged with traffic. Antakya

25428-438: Was part of the Sanjak of Alexandretta during the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon , until it was made the Hatay State in 1938, after Turkish pressure. An Arab nationalist newspaper in the city, run by Zaki al-Arsuzi , was shut down by the Turks. On May 30, 1938, an Arab was killed during a riot by a Turkish crowd. On 7 July 1938, the Turkish army entered Antioch. The annexation of the Hatay State by Turkey in 1939, creating

25591-404: Was particularly influenced by Sasanian architecture , which in turn featured elements present since ancient Mesopotamia. The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the Sasanian Empire , utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco. Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the four-centered arch , and a dome erected on squinches . Unfortunately, much

25754-435: Was slowly replaced by a Baramkid bureaucracy. To the west, Harun al-Rashid agreed to grant the province of Ifriqiya (centered in present-day Tunisia) as a hereditary emirate to Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab , who founded the Aghlabid dynasty there. Al-Mahdi restarted the fighting with the Byzantines , and his sons continued the conflict until Empress Irene pushed for peace. After several years of peace, Nikephoros I broke

25917-414: Was subsequently killed. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated. Immediately after their victory, al-Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia , where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas . Al-Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia . The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions. One of

26080-407: Was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali , who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn 'Ali , a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign in Persia for

26243-402: Was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid historical period lasting to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of

26406-485: Was taken prisoner for three years (1100–03) by Gazi Gümüshtigin of the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene . Tancred expanded the territory of Antioch by conquering Byzantine Cilicia , Tarsus , and Adana in 1101. In 1107 Bohemond enraged by an earlier defeat, renamed Tancred as the regent of Antioch so he could sail for Europe with the intent of gaining support for an attack against the Greeks. Bohemond laid siege to Dyrrachium but capitulated in September 1108 and

26569-406: Was the 10-year period of Al-Mu'tadid 's rule ( r. 892–902). He brought parts of Egypt, Syria, and Khorasan back into Abbasid control. Especially after the " Anarchy at Samarra " (861–870), the Abbasid central government was weakened and centrifugal tendencies became more prominent in the caliphate's provinces. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of Iraq to various emirs , and

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