In 1547 the river that flowed northwest into Lake Tacarigua (today, Lake Valencia ) was first seen by the expeditionary Juan de Villegas and the other men he commanded when they took possession of these lands.
171-471: Since ancient times, the cities of the far east and the old world, were founded in the vicinity of a river. This custom spread to the New World. In this way, Nueva Valencia del Rey was founded, near Lake Tacarigua, a paradisiacal reservoir of botany, animals, and life when discovered by the conquerors, bathed by a generous river, in most of the houses and in the customs and hearts of its inhabitants. In 1814,
342-744: A third republic in 1817 and then crossed the Andes to liberate New Granada in 1819. Bolívar and his allies defeated the Spanish in New Granada in 1819, Venezuela and Panama in 1821, Ecuador in 1822, Peru in 1824, and Bolivia in 1825. Venezuela, New Granada, Ecuador, and Panama were merged into the Republic of Colombia ( Gran Colombia ), with Bolívar as president there and in Peru and Bolivia. In his final years, Bolívar became increasingly disillusioned with
513-516: A union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River . The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia , and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President . However, the new republic was unstable and the Gran Colombia ultimately collapsed. Modern Colombia comes from one of
684-592: A Caracas native and government official, to educate Bolívar. Bolívar moved into Uztáriz's residence in February 1800 and was educated in the Classics , literature, and social studies. At the same time, Mallo fell out of the Queen's favor and Manuel Godoy , her previous favorite, returned to power. As members of Mallo's faction at court, Esteban was arrested on pretense, and Bolívar was banished from court following
855-572: A Republican army led by Argentine general José de San Martín , who had liberated Chile and Peru, and Bolívar feared San Martín would absorb Ecuador into Peru. In October 1821, after congress empowered him to secure Ecuador for Colombia, Bolívar assembled an army in Bogotá that departed on 13 December 1821. His advance was halted by illness and a Pyrrhic victory at the Battle of Bomboná [ es ] in southern Colombia on 7 April 1822. To
1026-544: A Royalist advance into New Granada from Venezuela, and captured the city of Cúcuta from the Royalists. In early March 1813, Bolívar set up his headquarters in Cúcuta and sent José Félix Ribas to request permission to invade Venezuela. Though rewarded with honorary citizenship in New Granada and a promotion to the rank of brigadier general , that permission did not come until 7 May because of del Castillo's opposition to
1197-425: A Royalist army under the Spanish naval officer Juan Domingo de Monteverde overran western Venezuela. Miranda, retreating east with a disintegrating army, ordered Bolívar to assume command of the coastal city of Puerto Cabello and its fortress , which contained Royalist prisoners and most of the republic's remaining arms and ammunition. Bolívar arrived at Puerto Cabello on 4 May 1812. On 30 June, an officer of
1368-685: A Royalist uprising in the city of Valencia later in July, the congress replaced del Toro with Miranda, and he recaptured Valencia [ es ] on 13 August. As a condition of assuming command of the Republican forces, Miranda had Bolívar stripped of his command of a militia unit. Bolívar nonetheless fought in the Valencia campaign as part of del Toro's militia and was selected by Miranda to bring news of its recapture to Caracas, where he argued for more punitive and forceful campaigning against
1539-520: A Royalist withdrawal. Even with their combined forces, however, Bolívar, Mariño, and Bermúdez could not hold Barcelona. Instead, on 25 March 1817, Bolívar began moving south to join Piar in Guayana, Piar's power base, and establish his own economic and political base there. Bolívar met Piar on 4 April, promoted him to the rank of general of the army , and then joined a force of Piar's troops besieging
1710-425: A Spanish agent who had escaped with military documents, however, discourse – which Bolívar was prominent in – changed decidedly in favor of independence over 3 and 4 July. Finally, on 5 July, the congress declared Venezuela's independence . The declaration of independence created the first Republic of Venezuela . It had a weak base of support and enemies in conservative whites, disenfranchised people of color, and
1881-480: A Spanish plot. He left Jamaica eight days later, arrived in Les Cayes on 24 December, and on 2 January 1816 was introduced to Alexandre Pétion , President of the Republic of Haiti by a mutual friend. Bolívar and Pétion impressed and befriended each other and, after Bolívar pledged to free every slave in the areas he occupied, Pétion gave him money and military supplies. Returning to Les Cayes, Bolívar held
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#17327810178142052-622: A child. Bolívar was educated abroad and lived in Spain, as was common for men of upper-class families in his day. While living in Madrid from 1800 to 1802, he was introduced to Enlightenment philosophy and married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa , who died in Venezuela from yellow fever in 1803. From 1803 to 1805, Bolívar embarked on a Grand Tour that ended in Rome , where he swore to end
2223-514: A conference with the Republican leaders in Haiti and was made supreme leader with Mariño as his chief of staff. The Republicans departed Les Cayes for Venezuela on 31 March 1816 and followed the Antilles eastward. After a delay to allow a lover of Bolívar's to join the fleet, it arrived on 2 May at Margarita Island, controlled by Republican commander Juan Bautista Arismendi . Bolívar next moved to
2394-445: A congress for a new, third republic . He wrote to the Republican leaders, especially José Antonio Páez , who controlled most of the western Llanos, to unite under his leadership. On 8 January 1817, Bolívar marched towards Caracas but was defeated at the Battle of Clarines and pursued to Barcelona by a larger Royalist force. At Bolívar's request, Mariño arrived on 8 February with Bermúdez, who then reconciled with Bolívar, and forced
2565-702: A constitution for Bolivia. Bolívar arrived in Potosí on 5 October and met with two Argentine agents, Carlos María de Alvear and José Miguel Díaz Vélez , who tried without success to convince him to intervene in the Cisplatine War against the Empire of Brazil . From Potosí, Bolívar traveled to Chuquisaca and appointed Sucre to govern Bolivia on 29 December 1825; he departed for Peru on 1 January 1826. Bolívar arrived in Lima on 10 February and dispatched his draft of
2736-474: A decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox , to which they had no immunity. Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines. In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of
2907-524: A decree on 16 July dividing Venezuela into three military zones governed by Páez, Bermúdez, and Mariño. Bolívar then met with the Congress of Cúcuta, which had ratified the formation of Gran Colombia and elected him as president and Santander as vice president in September. Bolívar accepted and was sworn in on 3 October, although he protested the establishment of a precedent of military leaders as head of
3078-460: A group of officers including Bolívar arrested Miranda on 30 July on charges of treason against the republic. La Guaira declared for the Royalists the next day and closed its port on Monteverde's orders. Miranda was taken into Spanish custody and moved to a prison in Cádiz, where he died on 16 July 1816. Bolívar escaped La Guaira early on 31 July 1812 and rode to Caracas, where he hid from arrest in
3249-554: A lasting affair. From Quito, Bolívar traveled to Guayaquil in anticipation of a meeting with San Martín to discuss the city's status and to rally support for its annexation by Colombia. When San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on 26 July, Bolívar had already secured Guayaquil for Colombia, and the two-day Guayaquil Conference produced no agreement between Bolívar and San Martín. Ill, politically isolated, and disillusioned, San Martín resigned from his offices and went into exile. Over
3420-539: A military command. Labatut, a former partisan of Miranda, begrudgingly obliged and on 1 December 1812 placed Bolívar in command of the 70-man garrison of a town on the lower Magdalena River . While en route to his posting, Bolívar issued the Cartagena Manifesto , outlining what he believed to be the causes of the Venezuelan republic's defeat and his political program. In particular, Bolívar called for
3591-599: A motherly and fatherly figure. On 6 July 1792, María de la Concepción also died of tuberculosis. Believing that his family would inherit the Bolívars' wealth, Feliciano Palacios arranged marriages for María Antonia and Juana and, before dying on 5 December 1793, assigned custody of Juan Vicente and Simón to his sons, Juan Félix Palacios and Carlos Palacios y Blanco [ es ] , respectively. Bolívar came to loathe Carlos Palacios, who had no interest in
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#17327810178143762-428: A new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society. The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–2010) adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process,
3933-431: A number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Álvaro Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of Defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of
4104-817: A population of around 52 million. Its rich cultural heritage —including language, religion, cuisine, and art—reflects its history as a colony, fusing cultural elements brought by immigration from Europe and the Middle East , with those brought by the African diaspora , as well as with those of the various Indigenous civilizations that predate colonization. Spanish is the official language , although Creole, English and 64 other languages are recognized regionally. Colombia has been home to many indigenous peoples and cultures since at least 12,000 BCE. The Spanish first landed in La Guajira in 1499, and by
4275-685: A public incident at the Puerta de Toledo over the wearing of diamonds without royal permission. Bolívar also at this time met María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa , the daughter of another wealthy Caracas creole. They were engaged in August 1800, but were separated when the del Toros left Madrid for a summer home in Bilbao . After Uztáriz left Madrid for a government assignment in Teruel in 1801, Bolívar himself left for Bilbao and remained there when
4446-624: A republic—the current Republic of Colombia—in 1886. With the backing of the United States and France, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, resulting in Colombia's present borders. Beginning in the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict and political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s. Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law, as well as unprecedented economic growth and development. Colombia
4617-561: A result of this error. In July, 8,000 Spanish soldiers commanded by Spanish general Pablo Morillo landed at Santa Marta and then besieged Cartagena [ es ] , which capitulated on 6 December; del Castillo was executed. Bolívar arrived in Kingston, Jamaica , on 14 May 1815 and, as in his earlier exile on Curaçao, ruminated on the fall of the Venezuelan and New Granadan republics. He wrote extensively, requesting assistance from Britain and corresponding with merchants based in
4788-431: A six-month truce, a prisoner exchange , and basic rights for combatants . Bolívar and Morillo signed the treaties on 25 and 26 November, then met the next day at Santa Ana de Trujillo [ es ] . After this meeting, Morillo turned his command over to Spanish general Miguel de la Torre and departed for Spain on 17 December. In February 1821, as Bolívar was traveling from Bogotá to Cúcuta in anticipation of
4959-527: A speech in which he advocated for a centralized government modeled on the British government and racial equality, and relinquished civil authority to the congress. On 16 February, the congress elected Bolívar as president and Zea as vice president. On 27 February, Bolívar left Angostura to rejoin Páez in the west and resumed campaigning [ es ] against Morillo, albeit ineffectively. In May, as
5130-541: Is approximately 7 times bigger. Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish . It is also the country with the most endemic species of butterflies , is first in orchid species, and has approximately 7,000 species of beetles . Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms . There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in
5301-410: Is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity , winds and rainfall. Colombia has a diverse range of climate zones, including tropical rainforests , savannas , steppes , deserts and mountain climates. Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate
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5472-476: Is determined by elevation. Below 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone , where temperatures are above 24 °C (75.2 °F). About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between 1,001 and 2,000 meters (3,284 and 6,562 ft) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between 17 and 24 °C (62.6 and 75.2 °F). The cold climate
5643-408: Is present between 2,001 and 3,000 meters (6,565 and 9,843 ft) and the temperatures vary between 12 and 17 °C (53.6 and 62.6 °F). Beyond lies the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos . Above 4,000 meters (13,123 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial , a zone of permanent snow and ice. Colombia is one of
5814-628: Is recognized for its healthcare system , being the best healthcare in Latin America according to the World Health Organization and 22nd in the world. Its diversified economy is the third-largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects. Colombia is one of the world's seventeen megadiverse countries ; it has the highest level of biodiversity per square mile in
5985-478: Is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater. The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers , government is divided into three branches: the executive branch,
6156-614: The AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) had ceased to function formally as an organization . In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups. After peace negotiations in Cuba , the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and the guerrillas of the FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify
6327-672: The Alliance for Progress . Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC , the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between government forces , leftist guerrilla groups and right wing paramilitaries . The conflict escalated in
6498-586: The Amazon basin . The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations . The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934. Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between
6669-527: The Amazon rainforest . Together these lowlands make up over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast , home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena , generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes
6840-587: The Andean Community ; it is also a NATO Global Partner and a major non-NATO ally of the United States . The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus ( Latin : Christophorus Columbus , Italian : Cristoforo Colombo , Spanish: Cristóbal Colón ). It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World. The name was later adopted by
7011-714: The Andes and Amazon basin . The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 kilometers (62 mi) southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in
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7182-499: The Battle of Ayacucho and accepted the surrender [ es ] of all Royalist forces in Peru. The garrison of Callao and Olañeta ignored the surrender. Shortly after arriving in Lima, Bolívar began a siege of Callao that lasted until January 1826, and sent Sucre into Upper Peru to eliminate Olañeta. However, Oleñeta was killed at the Battle of Tumusla prior to Sucre's arrival. With Irish volunteer Francisco Burdett O'Connor serving as his second in command, Sucre completed
7353-718: The Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuela to the east and northeast, Brazil to the southeast, Ecuador and Peru to the south and southwest, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and Panama to the northwest. Colombia is divided into 32 departments . The Capital District of Bogotá is also the country's largest city hosting the main financial and cultural hub. Other major urban areas include Medellín , Cali , Barranquilla , Cartagena , Santa Marta , Cúcuta , Ibagué , Villavicencio and Bucaramanga . It covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 sq mi) and has
7524-695: The Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion . In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru , with its capital in Lima . In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota. In 1549, the Royal Audiencia
7695-517: The Congress , a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate . The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote. The judicial branch is headed by four high courts , consisting of
7866-548: The Eastern Range of the Andes on 22 June and began a grueling crossing. On 6 July, the Republicans descended from the Andes at Socha and into the plains of New Granada. After a brief convalescence, the Republicans made rapid progress against the forces of Spanish colonel José María Barreiro Manjón until, on 7 August, the Royalists were routed at the Battle of Boyacá . On 10 August, Bolívar entered Bogotá, which
8037-632: The Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado , the "city of gold". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries. The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in Colombia experienced
8208-669: The Magdalena River Valley. A site including eight miles (13 km) of pictographs that is under study at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020. Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.) by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted. It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in
8379-1002: The Mons Sacer , where the plebs had seceded from Rome in the 4th century BC, Bolívar swore to end Spanish rule in the Americas. By April 1806, Bolívar had returned to Paris and desired passage to Venezuela, where Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda had just attempted an invasion with American volunteers. British control of the seas resulting from the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar , however, obliged Bolívar to board an American ship in Hamburg in October 1806. Bolívar arrived in Charleston, South Carolina , in January 1807, and from there traveled to Washington, D.C. , Philadelphia , New York City , and Boston . After six months in
8550-720: The Pacific Coastal region; the Caribbean coastal region; the Llanos (plains); the Amazon rainforest region; to the insular area , comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica , Nicaragua , Honduras , Jamaica , Haiti , and the Dominican Republic . Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama , to the east by Venezuela and Brazil, and to
8721-436: The Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil). When Venezuela, Ecuador, and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name " Republic of New Granada ". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation . In 1863
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#17327810178148892-602: The Rue Vivienne [ fr ] and met with other South Americans such as Carlos de Montúfar , Vicente Rocafuerte , and Simón Rodríguez, who joined Bolívar and del Toro in their apartment. While in Paris, Bolívar began a dalliance with the Countess Dervieu du Villars, at whose salon he likely met the naturalists Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland , who had traveled through much of Spanish America from 1799 to 1804. Bolívar allegedly discussed Spanish American independence with them. I swear before you ... that I will not rest body or soul until I have broken
9063-462: The Spanish rule in the Americas . In 1807, Bolívar returned to Venezuela and promoted Venezuelan independence to other wealthy creoles. When the Spanish authority in the Americas weakened due to Napoleon's Peninsular War , Bolívar became a zealous combatant and politician in the Spanish-American wars of independence . Bolívar began his military career in 1810 as a militia officer in the Venezuelan War of Independence , fighting Royalist forces for
9234-500: The Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State , which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court , responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature , responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law , which since 1991 has been applied through an adversarial system . Despite
9405-466: The Third Battle of La Puerta [ es ] on 16 March. He escaped assassination by Spanish infiltrators in April. Illness and additional Republican defeats obliged Bolívar to return to Angostura in May. For the rest of the year, he focused on administering the republic, rebuilding its armed forces, and organizing elections for a national congress that would meet in 1819. The congress met in Angostura on 15 February 1819. There, Bolívar gave
9576-426: The United States , Bolívar returned to Philadelphia and sailed for Venezuela, where he arrived in June 1807. He began to meet with other creole elites to discuss independence from Spain. Finding himself to be far more radical than the rest of Caracas high society, however, Bolívar occupied himself with a property dispute with a neighbor, Antonio Nicolás Briceño [ es ] . In 1807–08, Napoleon invaded
9747-551: The coup , Bolívar and his brother returned to the city and offered their services to the Supreme Junta as diplomats. In May 1810, Juan Vicente was sent to the United States to buy weapons, while Simón secured a place in a diplomatic mission to Great Britain with the lawyer Luis López Méndez [ es ] and Andrés Bello by paying for the mission. The trio boarded a British warship in June 1810 and arrived at Portsmouth on 10 July 1810. The three delegates first met Miranda at his London residence, despite instructions from
9918-415: The first and second Venezuelan republics and the United Provinces of New Granada . After Spanish forces subdued New Granada in 1815, Bolívar was forced into exile on Jamaica . In Haiti , Bolívar met and befriended Haitian revolutionary leader Alexandre Pétion . After promising to abolish slavery in Spanish America, Bolívar received military support from Pétion and returned to Venezuela. He established
10089-464: The megadiverse countries in biodiversity , ranking first in bird species . Colombia is the country with the planet's highest biodiversity, having the highest rate of species by area as well as the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined. Colombia has 10% of
10260-425: The 1200s, Malayo-Polynesians and Native Americans in Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands. Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas , made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near
10431-426: The 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994. The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged
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#173278101781410602-611: The 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca , Zenú , Quimbaya , and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques . The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau ( Altiplano Cundiboyacense ) where they formed the Muisca Confederation . They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds , blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in
10773-436: The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela) are named after him, and he has been memorialized all over the world in the form of public art or street names and in popular culture. Simón Bolívar was born on 24 July 1783 in Caracas , capital of the Captaincy General of Venezuela , the fourth and youngest child of Juan Vicente Bolívar y Ponte [ es ] and María de la Concepción Palacios y Blanco [ es ] . He
10944-503: The Bolivian constitution to Sucre on 12 May. That constitution [ es ] was ratified with modification by the Bolivian congress in July 1826. Peru, whose elites chafed at Bolívar's rule and the presence of his soldiers, was also induced to accept a modified version of Bolívar's constitution on 16 August. In Venezuela, Páez revolted against Santander , and in Panama, a congress of American nations organized by Bolívar convened without his attendance and produced no change in
11115-418: The Bolívar children's inheritances. Those children – María Antonia [ es ] (born 1777), Juana [ es ] (born 1779), Juan Vicente [ es ] (born 1781), and Simón – were raised separately from each other and their mother, and, following colonial custom, by African house slaves ; Simón was raised by a slave named Hipólita [ es ] whom he viewed as both
11286-444: The British government wanted Miranda to remain in Britain, they could not prevent his departure, and he arrived in Venezuela later in December. While Bolívar was in England, the Supreme Junta passed liberal economic reforms and began to hold elections for representatives to a congress to be held in Caracas. It had also alienated Caracas from the Venezuelan provinces of Coro , Maracaibo , and Guayana , which professed loyalty to
11457-763: The Cabriales River. Among the most outstanding painters are Leopoldo La Madriz, Braulio Salazar and Guarenas. In the poetic genre, the following was emphasized: During his term as governor of Carabobo , Henrique Salas Römer decreed the "Cabriales Festivals", which mixed music with painting. Canelon, Luis Heraclio Medina. "Tres Historias Del Cabriales: Canalización, Suicidios y Puentes Caídos". TRES HISTORIAS DEL CABRIALES: CANALIZACIÓN, SUICIDIOS Y PUENTES CAÍDOS , 1 Jan. 1970, http://cronicasyotrashistorias.blogspot.com/2020/01/tres-historias-del-cabriales.html. Sim%C3%B3n Bol%C3%ADvar Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar Palacios Ponte y Blanco (24 July 1783 – 17 December 1830)
11628-452: The Captain-General of Venezuela, and were arrested. Bolívar, though he did not sign the petition and thus was not arrested, was warned to cease hosting or attending seditious meetings. In May 1809, Casas was replaced by Vicente Emparán and his staff, which included Fernando Rodríguez del Toro. The creoles also resisted Emparán's government, despite his friendlier disposition towards them. By February 1810, French victories in Spain prompted
11799-438: The Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened
11970-455: The Caribbean. This culminated in September 1815 with the Jamaica Letter , in which Bolívar again laid out his ideology and vision of the future of the Americas. On 9 December, the Venezuelan pirate Renato Beluche brought Bolívar news from New Granada and asked him to join the Republican community in exile in Haiti . Bolívar tentatively accepted and escaped assassination that night when his manservant mistakenly killed his paymaster as part of
12141-490: The Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the National Front , a coalition that would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with
12312-534: The Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day. This movement followed the independence of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar . Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role. A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño , who opposed Spanish centralism and led
12483-539: The Colombian congress on 3 August. When Bolívar arrived in Lima , Peru's capital, on 1 September, Peru was split between two rival presidents, José de la Riva Agüero and José Bernardo de Tagle , and the Royalists under the Viceroy of Peru , José de la Serna . In November 1823, Riva Agüero, who plotted with the Royalists against Bolívar, was betrayed by his officers to Bolívar and exiled from Peru. While Bolívar
12654-478: The Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. Beginning in the mid-1970s Colombian drug cartels became major producers, processors and exporters of illegal drugs , primarily marijuana and cocaine . On 4 July 1991,
12825-595: The Colombian state. After the Battle of Carabobo, Bolívar turned his attention south, to Pasto, Colombia ; Quito and the Free Province of Guayaquil , Ecuador ; and the Viceroyalty of Peru . Pasto and Quito were Royalist strongholds, while Guayaquil had declared its independence on 9 October 1820 and had been garrisoned by Sucre on Bolívar's orders in January 1821. Panama declared its independence on 28 November 1821 and joined Colombia. Peru had been invaded by
12996-773: The Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). At 2,600 m (8,530 ft), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world. The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare , Atrato , Meta , Putumayo and Caquetá . Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively. The climate of Colombia
13167-493: The Iberian peninsula and replaced the rulers of Spain with his brother, Joseph . This news arrived in Venezuela in July 1808. Napoleonic rule was rejected and Venezuelan creoles, though still loyal to Ferdinand VII of Spain , sought to form their own local government in place of the existing Spanish government. On 24 November 1808, a group of creoles presented a petition demanding an independent government to Juan de Casas ,
13338-560: The Legion of Hell, an army of llaneros – the horsemen of the Llanos , to the south – led by the Spanish warlord José Tomás Boves . Beginning in February 1814, Boves surged out of the Llanos and overwhelmed the republic, occupying Caracas on 16 July and then destroying Mariño's powerbase on 5 December at the Battle of Urica , where Boves died. As Boves approached Caracas, Bolívar ordered
13509-540: The Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Córdoba, Colombia , the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying
13680-458: The Republican leaders scattered across Venezuela, concentrating in the Llanos, and became disunited warlords. Unwilling to recognize Mariño's leadership, Arismendi wrote to Bolívar and dispatched New Granadan Republican Francisco Antonio Zea to convince him to return. Bolívar and Zea set sail for Venezuela on 21 December with Luis Brión , a Dutch merchant, and arrived ten days later at Barcelona. There, Bolívar announced his return and called for
13851-453: The Republicans from the north and east. On 26 March 1812, a powerful earthquake devastated Republican Venezuela; Caracas itself was almost totally destroyed. Bolívar, who was still near Caracas, rushed into the city to participate in the rescue of survivors and exhumation of the dead. The earthquake destroyed public support for the republic, as it was believed to have been divine retribution for declaring independence from Spain. By April,
14022-484: The Royalists in Venezuela on 20 September 1819. En route, he learned that Zea had been replaced as vice president in September 1819 by Arismendi, who was conspiring with Mariño against Urdaneta and Bermúdez. Bolívar arrived in Angostura on 11 December and, by being conciliatory, defused the plot. He then proposed the merging of New Granada and Venezuela to the congress on 14 December, which was approved. On 17 December,
14193-733: The Royalists. I left my house for the Cathedral ... and the earth began to shake with a huge roar. ... I saw the church of San Jacinto collapse on its own foundations. ... I climbed over the ruins and entered, and I immediately saw about forty persons dead or dying under the rubble. I climbed out again and I shall never forget that moment. On the top of the ruins I found Don Simón Bolívar ... He saw me and [said], "We will fight nature itself if it opposes us, and force it to obey." Royalist historian José Domingo Díaz [ es ] , quoted by John Lynch Beginning in November 1811, Royalist forces began pushing back
14364-594: The South American republics, and distanced from them because of his centralist ideology. He was successively removed from his offices until he resigned the presidency of Colombia and died of tuberculosis in 1830. His legacy is diverse and far-reaching within Latin America and beyond. He is regarded as a hero and national and cultural icon throughout Latin America; the nations of Bolivia and Venezuela (as
14535-431: The Spanish Crown. To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities: resguardos , encomiendas and haciendas . However, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru , which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain , which included
14706-445: The Spanish officials had hastily abandoned, and captured the viceregal treasury and armories. After sending forces to secure Republican control of central New Granada, Bolívar paraded through Bogotá on 18 September with Santander. Desiring to merge New Granada and Venezuela into a " greater republic of Colombia ", Bolívar first established a provisional government in Bogotá with Santander, and then left to resume campaigning against
14877-962: The Supreme Junta to avoid him, and thereafter received the benefit of his connections and consultation. On 16 July 1810, the Venezuelan delegation met the British foreign secretary , Richard Wellesley , at his residence . Led by Bolívar, the Venezuelans argued in favor of Venezuelan independence, which Wellesley stated that it was intolerable for Anglo-Spanish relations . Subsequent meetings produced no recognition or concrete support from Britain. Finding that he had many shared beliefs with Miranda, however, Bolívar convinced him to come back to Venezuela. On 22 September 1810, Bolívar left for Venezuela while López and Bello remained in London as diplomats, and arrived in La Guaira on 5 December. Although
15048-619: The Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar , who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela. During the Independence War, between 250 and 400 thousand people (12–20% of the pre-war population) died. The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia , organized as
15219-670: The already hostile Venezuelan provinces, which received troops and supplies from the Captaincy-Generals of Puerto Rico and Cuba . On 13 July 1811, the republic raised militias to fight the pro-Spanish Royalists . The congress appointed Francisco Rodríguez del Toro [ es ] , the Marquis of Toro [ es ] , to command these forces, which opened a breach between Bolívar and Miranda. Bolívar and del Toro were close friends, while del Toro and Miranda and their families were enemies. After he failed to suppress
15390-689: The annual wet season was beginning in the Llanos, Bolívar met with his officers and revealed his intention to invade and liberate New Granada from Royalist occupation, which he had prepared for by sending Santander to build up Republican forces in Casanare Province in August 1818. On 27 May, Bolívar marched with more than 2,000 soldiers toward the Andes and left Páez, Mariño, Urdaneta, and Bermúdez to tie down Morillo's forces in Venezuela. Bolívar entered Casanare Province with his army on 4 June 1819, then met up with Santander at Tame, Arauca , on 11 June. The combined Republican force reached
15561-668: The area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $ 25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt 's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty . Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in
15732-471: The armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice . During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict. In June 2018, Iván Duque , the candidate of the right-wing Democratic Center party, won the presidential election . On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new President of Colombia to succeed Juan Manuel Santos. Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to ideological differences between
15903-543: The army to Sucre and moved to Huancayo to manage political affairs. On 24 October, Bolívar received a letter from Santander informing him that because he had accepted the dictatorship of Peru the Colombian congress had stripped him of his military and civil authority in favor of Sucre and Santander, respectively. Although indignant and resentful of Santander, Bolívar wrote to him on 10 November to communicate his acquiescence and reoccupied Lima on 5 December 1824. On 9 December, Sucre decisively defeated La Serna's Royalists at
16074-678: The bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902), in which between 100 and 180 thousand Colombians lost their lives when the Liberal Party , supported by Venezuela , Ecuador , Nicaragua , and Guatemala rebelled against the Nationalist government and took control of Santander , ultimately being defeated in 1902 by nationalist forces. The United States of America's intentions to influence
16245-694: The boy other than his inheritance. As a child, Bolívar was notoriously unruly and neglected his studies. Before his mother died, he spent two years under the tutelage of the Venezuelan lawyer Miguel José Sanz at the direction of the Real Audiencia of Caracas [ es ] , the Spanish court of appeals in Caracas. In 1793, Carlos enrolled Bolívar at a rudimentary primary school [ es ] run by Venezuelan educator Simón Rodríguez . In June 1795, Bolívar fled his uncle's custody for
16416-836: The chains binding us to the will of Spanish might! Simón Bolívar, 15 August 1805 In April 1805, Bolívar left Paris with Rodríguez and del Toro on a Grand Tour to Italy . Beginning in Lyon , they traveled through the Savoy Alps and then to Milan . The trio arrived on 26 May 1805 and witnessed Napoleon's coronation as King of Italy . From Milan, they traveled down the Po Valley to Venice , then to Florence , and then finally Rome , where Bolívar met, among others, Pope Pius VII , French writer Germaine de Staël , and Humboldt again. Rome's sites and history excited Bolívar. On 18 August 1805, when he, del Toro, and Rodríguez traveled to
16587-690: The city of Cali ; the Cordillera Central , running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities of Medellín , Manizales , Pereira , and Armenia ; and the Cordillera Oriental , extending northeast to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga , and Cúcuta . Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and in
16758-609: The city of Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar ) on 2 May. Meanwhile, Mariño went east to reestablish his power base and on 8 May convened a congress of ten men, including Brión and Zea, that named Mariño as supreme commander of the Republican forces. This backfired and provoked the defection of 30 officers, including Rafael Urdaneta and Antonio José de Sucre , to Bolívar. On 30 June, Bolívar granted Piar leave of absence at his request, and then issued an arrest warrant on 23 July after Piar began fomenting rebellion, alleging that Bolívar had dismissed him because of his mulatto heritage. Piar
16929-486: The city stripped of its gold and silver, which was moved through La Guaira to Barcelona, Venezuela , and from there to Cumaná . Bolívar then led 20,000 of its citizens east. He arrived in Barcelona on 2 August, but following another defeat at the Battle of Aragua de Barcelona on 17 August 1814, he moved to Cumaná. On 26 August, he sailed with Mariño to Margarita Island with the treasure. The officer in control of
17100-570: The city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw. The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War . The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of
17271-680: The colonial bureaucracy and had married into various wealthy Caracas families over the years. By the time Simón Bolívar was born, the Bolívar family was one of the wealthiest and most prestigious criollo (creole) families in the Spanish Americas. Simón Bolívar's childhood was described by British historian John Lynch as "at once privileged and deprived." Juan Vicente died of tuberculosis on 19 January 1786, leaving María de la Concepción Palacios and her father, Feliciano Palacios y Sojo [ es ] , as legal guardians over
17442-710: The congress issued a decree creating the Republic of Colombia , including the regions of Venezuela, New Granada, and the still Spanish-controlled Real Audiencia of Quito , and elected Bolívar and Zea president and vice president respectively. After Christmas Day, 1819, Bolívar left Angostura to direct campaigns against Royalist forces along the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and New Granada. He met with Santander in Bogotá in March 1820, then rode to Cúcuta and inspected Republican forces in northern Colombia over April and May 1820. Meanwhile, Morillo's military and political position
17613-496: The countries that emerged after the dissolution of Gran Colombia , the other two being Ecuador and Venezuela. Colombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849, respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851. Internal political and territorial divisions led to
17784-406: The country's legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations. Protests started on 28 April 2021 when the government proposed a tax bill that would greatly expand the range of the 19 percent value-added tax . The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla, Gustavo Petro , taking 50.47% of
17955-603: The country's tallest peaks ( Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar ), and the La Guajira Desert . By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands , backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura . Part of the Ring of Fire , a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions , in
18126-491: The country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems . Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about 14,268,224 hectares (142,682.24 km ) and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries. Colombia
18297-489: The daily sustenance of water vendors or haulers. It was also relevant for the depressed and suicidal who found liberation from their sorrows and problems in the river. Towards the sunset of a date already forgotten, the inert body of Lady Zedhernán moved and impacted the citizens. Lady Zedhernán was a beautiful Valencian whose suicide in the Cabriales was the oldest suicide of which there is memory. The reason for her suicide
18468-751: The deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW . A Special Jurisdiction of Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during
18639-720: The del Toros returned to the capital in August 1801. Early in 1802, Bolívar traveled to Paris while he awaited permission to return to Madrid, which was granted in April. Bolívar and del Toro, aged 18 and 21 respectively, were married in Madrid on 26 May 1802. The couple boarded the San Ildefonso in La Coruña on 15 June and sailed for La Guaira, where they arrived on 12 July. They settled in Caracas, where del Toro fell ill and died of yellow fever on 22 January 1803. Bolívar
18810-547: The disparate New Granadan republics to help him invade Venezuela to prevent a Royalist invasion of New Granada. Bolívar arrived on the Magdalena River on 21 December and, in spite of orders from Labatut to not act without his direction, launched an offensive that secured control of the Magdalena River from Royalist forces by 8 January 1813. In February, he joined forces with Republican colonel Manuel del Castillo y Rada , who requested Bolívar's assistance with stopping
18981-400: The dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called " Department of Cundinamarca " adopted the name " New Granada ", which it kept until 1858 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" ( Granadine Confederation ). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the United States of Colombia was created, which became known as the Republic of Colombia in 1886. Internal divisions remained between
19152-490: The dissolution of the anti-French Spanish government in favor of a five-man regency council for Ferdinand VII. This news, and two delegates that included Carlos de Montúfar, arrived in Venezuela on 17 April 1810. Two days later, the creoles succeeded in deposing and then expelling Emparán, and created the Supreme Junta of Caracas , independent from the Spanish regency but not Ferdinand VII. Absent from Caracas for
19323-591: The districts through which he passed " New Kingdom of Granada ". In August 1538, he provisionally founded its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Muyquytá , and named it "Santa Fe". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar , conqueror of Quito , traveled north and founded Cali , in 1536, and Popayán , in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed
19494-458: The expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas , the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea , the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo . Rebellions against Spanish rule had occurred in the empire since the advent of conquest and colonization, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in
19665-619: The flow called Cacaíto. In 1979, the Cabriales River was diverted by the Environment Ministry to Lake Valencia, which has contributed to the increase in its level by about 30 centimeters per year. Currently the Cabriales River manifests itself in Valencian society only as a hydrographic place in the area. It has relevance for some scientists and environmentalists, who try to solve, encourage and raise awareness among
19836-503: The forced Spanish monopoly. The Viceroyalty of New Granada was established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogotá became one of
20007-469: The fort's garrison loyal to the Royalists released its prisoners, armed them, and turned its cannons on Puerto Cabello. Weakened by shelling, defections, and lack of supplies, Bolívar and his remaining troops fled for La Guaira on 6 July. Believing the republic to be doomed, Miranda decided to capitulate, shocking Bolívar and other Republican officers. After formally surrendering his command to Monteverde on 25 July, Miranda made his way to La Guaira, where
20178-535: The hemispheric status quo . On 3 September, responding to pleas for his return to Colombia, Bolívar departed Peru and left it under a governing council led by Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz . Colombia Colombia , officially the Republic of Colombia , is a country primarily located in South America with insular regions in North America . The Colombian mainland is bordered by
20349-519: The home of Esteban Fernández de León [ es ] , the Marquis de Casa León [ es ] . Bolívar and Casa León convinced Francisco Iturbe, a friend of the Bolívar family and of Monteverde, to intercede on Bolívar's behalf and secure escape from Venezuela for him. Iturbe persuaded Monteverde to issue Bolívar a passport for his role in Miranda's arrest, and on 27 August he sailed for
20520-526: The house of his sister María Antonia and her husband. The couple sought formal recognition of his change of residence, but the Real Audiencia decided the matter in favor of Palacios, who sent Simón to live with Rodríguez. After two months there, the Real Audiencia directed that he be returned to the Palacios family home. Bolívar promised the Real Audiencia that he would focus on his education and
20691-542: The interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño ), these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental , running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including
20862-696: The invasion. When a limited invasion was permitted, Castillo resigned his command and was succeeded by Francisco de Paula Santander . On 14 May, Bolívar launched the Admirable Campaign , in which he issued the Decree of War to the Death , ordering the death of all Spaniards in South America not actively aiding his forces. Within six months, Bolívar pushed all the way to Caracas, which he entered on 6 August, and then drove Monteverde out of Venezuela in October. Bolívar returned to Caracas on 14 October and
21033-630: The island of Curaçao . He and his uncles' Francisco and José Félix Ribas arrived on 1 September. Late in October, the exiles arranged for passage west to the city of Cartagena to offer their services as military leaders to the United Provinces of New Granada against the Royalists. They arrived in November and were welcomed by Manuel Rodríguez Torices , president of the Free State of Cartagena [ es ] , who instructed his commanding general, Pierre Labatut , to give Bolívar
21204-672: The island, Manuel Piar , declared Bolívar and Mariño to be traitors and forced them to return to the mainland. There, Ribas also accused Bolívar and Mariño of treachery, confiscated the treasure, and then exiled the two on 8 September. Bolívar arrived in Cartagena on 19 September and then met with the New Granadan congress in Tunja , which tasked him with subduing the rival Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca . On 12 December, Bolívar captured Cundinamarca's capital, Bogotá , and
21375-741: The isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta . The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. During
21546-568: The latter in Madrid . There, Esteban was friends with Queen Maria Luisa 's favorite , Manuel Mallo. On 19 January 1799, Bolívar boarded the Spanish warship San Ildefonso at the port of La Guaira , bound for Cádiz . He arrived in Santoña , on the northern coast of Spain, in May 1799. A little over a week later, he arrived in Madrid and joined Esteban, who found Bolívar to be "very ignorant." Esteban asked Gerónimo Enrique de Uztáriz y Tovar,
21717-582: The legislative branch and the judicial branch. As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government , followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers . The president is elected by popular vote to serve a single four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed
21888-466: The liberation of Upper Peru in April 1825. In early 1825, Bolívar resigned from his offices in Colombia and Peru, but neither nation's congress accepted his resignation; on 10 February 1825, the Peruvian congress extended his dictatorship for another year. Accepting the extension, Bolívar settled into governing Peru and passing reforms that were largely not carried out, such as a school system based on
22059-602: The mainland, where he declared the emancipation of all slaves and annulled of the Decree of War to the Death. He seized Carúpano on 31 May and sent Mariño and Piar into Guayana to build their own army, then took and held Ocumare de la Costa from 6 to 14 July, when it was recaptured by the Royalists. Bolívar fled by sea to Güiria where, on 22 August, he was deposed by Mariño and Venezuelan Republican José Francisco Bermúdez . Bolívar returned to Haiti by early September, where Pétion again agreed to assist him. In his absence,
22230-644: The mid-16th century, they had colonized much of present-day Colombia, and established the New Kingdom of Granada , with Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. Independence from the Spanish Empire was achieved in 1819, with what is now Colombia emerging as the United Provinces of New Granada . The new polity experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858) and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before becoming
22401-440: The municipal authorities of Madrid ordered all non-residents in the city to leave to alleviate a bread shortage brought about by Spain's resumed hostilities with Britain. Over April, Bolívar and Fernando Rodríguez del Toro [ es ] , a childhood friend and relative of his wife, made their way to Paris and arrived in time for Napoleon to be proclaimed Emperor of the French on 18 May 1804. They rented an apartment on
22572-408: The name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia , before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886. To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia and República de Colombia . Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to
22743-435: The nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada . It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from
22914-420: The one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors , municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as corregimientos or comunas . All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election. The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by
23085-545: The opening of a new congress there , he learned that Royalist-controlled Maracaibo had defected to Colombia and been occupied by Urdaneta. La Torre protested to Bolívar, who refused to return Maracaibo, leading to a renewal of hostilities on 28 April. Over May and June, Colombia's armies made rapid progress until, on 24 June, Bolívar and Páez decisively defeated La Torre at the Battle of Carabobo . All Royalist forces remaining in Venezuela were eliminated by August 1823. Bolívar entered Caracas in triumph on 29 June, and issued
23256-440: The opposition against the Viceroyalty . Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811, the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio . The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots ( federalism and centralism ) gave rise to a period of instability called the Patria Boba . Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII , recently restored to
23427-438: The people regarding the problem of the river. To the surprise of many, the Cabriales River previously mattered and had relevance in the social life of the city, which claimed that it constituted a kind of regional geographical symbol. During the years of Spain's conquest and colonization, to the Venezuelan coasts and after, during the War of Independence, the Cabriales River formed a point of security from assaults and piracy. It
23598-410: The principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City , though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways. Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British. A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture
23769-421: The principles of English educator Joseph Lancaster that was managed by Simón Rodríguez. In April 1825, Bolívar began a tour of southern Peru that took him to the cities of Arequipa and Cuzco by August. As Bolívar approached Upper Peru, a congress gathered in the city of Chuquisaca (now Sucre ); on 6 August, it declared the region to be the nation of Bolivia , named Bolívar President , and asked him to write
23940-400: The regency council, and began hostilities with them. Co-founding the Patriotic Society , a political organization advocating for independence from Spain, Bolívar and Miranda campaigned for and secured the latter's election to the congress. The congress first met on 2 March 1811 and declared its allegiance to Ferdinand VII. After it was discovered that one of the men leading the congress was
24111-430: The region of Upper Peru , rebelled [ es ] against la Serna. Bolívar seized the opportunity to advance into the Junín region , where he defeated Canterac at the Battle of Junín on 6 August, driving them out of Peru. Choosing to ignore Olañeta, la Serna ordered his forces to concentrate at Cuzco to face Bolívar. Heavy rainfall in September halted Bolívar's advance, and on 6 October he gave command of
24282-404: The regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca . The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found in San Jacinto , dates to 5000–4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from
24453-473: The remote areas of the river to unleash their tears. A well-known example of this was the case of Enrique Linares Irigoyen, who spent many hours devoted to the memory of his son, whom he had lost. He contracted the blood disease that destroyed him within hours. This disease was the one that took the life of his son and, later, that of his daughter and that of his own father. Many poets, musicians and painters have broken down literary pieces of admiration and art to
24624-407: The republic. Following a meeting at San Juan de Payara on 30 January 1818, Páez recognized Bolívar as supreme leader. In February 1818, the Republicans moved north and took Calabozo , where they defeated Morillo [ es ] , who had returned to Venezuela a year earlier after conquering Republican New Granada . Bolívar next advanced towards Caracas, but was defeated while en route at
24795-597: The rest of 1822, Bolívar traveled around Ecuador to complete its annexation while dispatching officers to suppress repeated rebellions in Pasto and resisting calls to return to Bogotá or Venezuela. Meanwhile, Royalist forces under general José de Canterac overwhelmed the Peruvian republic [ es ] . After initially refusing Colombian assistance, the Peruvian congress asked Bolívar several times in 1823 to assume command of their forces. Bolívar responded by sending an army under Sucre to assist, then delayed his own departure to Peru until he obtained permission from
24966-407: The river had great importance because during that year, the city was besieged twice by royalist forces. These forces took the river which was the only water supply site. A Valencian heroine, María Josefa Zabaleta y Gedler, distinguished herself by risking her life, seeking water from the river to supply the patriots. In 1818, the first bridge across the river was finished. By 1848, work on an aqueduct
25137-399: The south by Ecuador and Peru ; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S and between longitudes 67° and 79°W . East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos , part of the Orinoco River basin, and in the far southeast, the jungle of
25308-399: The south, Sucre, who had been trapped in Guayaquil by Royalist advances from Quito, now advanced, decisively defeated the Royalists at the Battle of Pichincha on 24 May 1822, and occupied Quito. On 6 June, Pasto surrendered, and ten days later Bolívar paraded through Quito with Sucre. He also met the Ecuadorian Republican Manuela Sáenz , the wife of a British merchant, with whom he began
25479-424: The throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan de Sámano , whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas . The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by
25650-657: The two governments. Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations. In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque had helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as
25821-431: The two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo , spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join
25992-400: The vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus . A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won re-election with nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga , who won 45%. In 2018, Iván Duque won in the second round of the election with 54% of
26163-432: The vote compared to 47.27% for independent candidate Rodolfo Hernández . The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented President Iván Duque from seeking re-election. On 7 August 2022, Petro was sworn in, becoming the country's first leftist president. The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region;
26334-417: The war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy . The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París . After Rojas' deposition,
26505-403: The world and the second-highest level overall. Its territory encompasses Amazon rainforest , highlands , grasslands and deserts . It is the only country in South America with coastlines (and islands) along both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Colombia is a key member of major global and regional organizations including the UN , the WTO , the OECD , the OAS , the Pacific Alliance and
26676-421: The world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species , equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which
26847-404: Was baptized as Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios on 30 July. The first of Bolívar's family to have emigrated to the Americas was a similarly named minor Spanish governmental official named Simón de Bolívar, who had been a notary in the Spanish Basque region , and who had later arrived in Venezuela in the 1580s. The earlier Simón de Bolívar's descendants had served in
27018-442: Was a Venezuelan statesman and military officer who led what are currently the countries of Colombia , Venezuela , Ecuador , Peru , Panama , and Bolivia to independence from the Spanish Empire . He is known colloquially as El Libertador , or the Liberator of America . Simón Bolívar was born in Caracas in the Captaincy General of Venezuela into a wealthy family of American-born Spaniards ( criollo ) but lost both parents as
27189-426: Was a place favored by its distance from the sea, its vast extension and its proximity to Lake Tacarigua. From this river, the inhabitants were supplied with water for their domestic needs and farmers and landowners for their crops and farms. Humble women turned to the river to wash their clothes and all who wanted sand, to bathe beasts and fish for pleasure or for the value of fish proteins. From its flow they perceived
27360-485: Was bedridden with fever over the first two months of 1824, Tagle defected to the Royalists with the garrison and city of Callao and briefly took Lima. In response, the Peruvian congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru on 10 February 1824. Bolívar moved to northern Peru in March and began assembling an army. His repeated demands for additional men and money strained his relationship with Santander. In May 1823, conservative Royalist general Pedro Antonio Olañeta , based in
27531-502: Was captured on 27 September as he fled to join Mariño and was brought to Angostura, where he was executed by firing squad on 16 October. Bolívar then sent Sucre to reconcile with Mariño, who pledged loyalty to Bolívar on 26 January 1818. On 17 July 1817, Angostura fell to Bolívar's forces, which gained control of the Orinoco River in early August. Angostura became the provisional Republican capital and in September, Bolívar began creating formal political and military structures for
27702-403: Was completed; to the surprise of many, the ravine called "La Represa", originally in Guataparo Arriba, was inadequate for the local population of the time. In 1877 a new aqueduct called "Guzmán Blanco" was built. "Guzmán Blanco" was added to the volume of the previous stream, La Represa, that of the Luvara ravine, also originated in Guataparo Arriba. In 1888 "Guzmán Blanco" was, from the same place,
27873-430: Was controlled by Santiago Mariño , a Venezuelan Republican who had fought Monteverde in the east throughout 1813 and was unwilling to subordinate himself to Bolívar. Venezuela was economically devastated and could not support the republic's armies, and people of color remained disenfranchised and thus unsupportive of the republic. The republic was assailed from all sides by slave revolts and Royalist forces, especially
28044-414: Was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá , which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies . In the 16th century, European slave traders had begun to bring enslaved Africans to the Americas. Spain
28215-426: Was devastated by del Toro's death and later told Louis Peru de Lacroix , one of his generals and biographers, that he swore to never remarry. By July 1803, Bolívar had decided to leave Venezuela for Europe. He entrusted his estates to an agent and his brother and in October boarded a ship bound for Cádiz. Bolívar arrived in Spain in December 1803, then traveled to Madrid to console his father-in-law. In March 1804,
28386-399: Was explained by the luxurious fan she kept tight in her hands, illustrated with a Japanese watercolor, which had been sent to her by the Liberator, named Simón Bolívar , inside an onyx case and along with a letter, the day after she met him at a dance on January 4, 1827, the last visit she made to Venezuela. In addition to the suicidal, there were those who, while death came for them, came to
28557-653: Was fatally undermined by the mutiny of Spanish soldiers in Cádiz on 1 January [ es ] , which forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution in March. News of the mutiny and its consequences arrived in Colombia in March and was followed by orders from Spain to Morillo to publicize the constitution and negotiate a peace that would return Colombia to the Spanish Empire. Bolívar and Morillo, seeking to gain leverage over each other, delayed talks until 21 November, when Colombian and Royalist delegates met in Trujillo, Venezuela . The delegates completed two treaties [ es ] on 25 November, establishing
28728-401: Was given command of New Granada's armies in January 1815. Bolívar next grappled with del Castillo, who had taken control of Cartagena. Bolívar besieged the city [ es ] for six weeks. His change of focus allowed the Royalist forces to regain control of the Magdalena. On 8 May, Bolívar made a truce with del Castillo, resigned his command, and sailed for self-exile on Jamaica as
28899-444: Was named "The Liberator" ( El Libertador ) by its town council, a title first given to him by the citizens of the Venezuelan town of Mérida on 23 May. On 2 January 1814, Bolívar was made the dictator of a Second Republic of Venezuela , which retained the weaknesses of the first republic. Though all of Venezuela but Maracaibo , Coro , and Guayana was controlled by Republicans, Bolívar only governed western Venezuela. The east
29070-473: Was subsequently taught full-time by Rodríguez and the Venezuelan intellectuals Andrés Bello and Francisco de Andújar [ es ] . In 1797, Rodríguez's connection to the pro-independence Gual and España conspiracy forced him to go into exile, and Bolívar was enrolled in an honorary militia force. When he was commissioned as an officer after a year, his uncles Carlos and Esteban Palacios y Blanco [ es ] decided to send Bolívar to join
29241-447: Was the only European power that did not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves; the Spanish Empire instead relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants from other European nations the license to trade enslaved peoples to their overseas territories. This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of
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