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144-666: Early on from the succession of the Song dynasty from the Five Dynasties in 960, relations between the Song and Liao were cordial. The Song had more important matters on their hand, namely conquering the remaining kingdoms in the south and north. After unifying the south in 979, the Song turned their eyes on the Liao. The Song destroyed the Northern Han state in 979. The Northern Han was a Shatuo Turk kingdom that considered itself

288-558: A Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable. Wanyan Aguda , chief of the Wanyan tribe, unified

432-591: A Jurchen burial ground in Partizansky District of Primorye in Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained

576-519: A central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards. Han officials of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to the Ming: Many "Yeren Jurchens", like

720-702: A dozen concurrent dynastic states, collectively known as the Ten Kingdoms, were established elsewhere, mainly in South China . It was a prolonged period of multiple political divisions in Chinese imperial history. Traditionally, the era is seen as beginning with the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907 and reaching its climax with the founding of the Song dynasty in 960. In the following 19 years, Song gradually subdued

864-546: A far less burden than the Song's military spending against the Liao. The treaty also was an official admission by the Song of the loss of the Sixteen Prefectures. The treaty is generally viewed positively for ending large-scale military conflict between the two dynasties and facilitating peaceful relations for decades afterwards. This peace lasted until the Alliance Conducted at Sea , through which

1008-602: A force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Lim Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army

1152-731: A stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles. In the ninth year of the Ming Xuande emperor the Jurchens in Manchuria under Ming rule suffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from

1296-527: A supposed fraternal relationship. For the first time in Chinese history there were two Sons of Heaven, recognized by each other. Five Dynasties The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ( Chinese : 五代十國 ) was an era of political upheaval and division in Imperial China from 907 to 979. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain , and more than

1440-563: A three-stage model of broad political trends during this time period. The first stage (880–910) consists of the period between the Huang Chao Rebellion and the formal end of the Tang dynasty, which saw chaotic fighting between warlords who controlled approximately one or two prefectures each. The second stage (910–950) saw the various warlords stabilize and gain enough legitimacy to proclaim new dynasties. The third stage (950–979) saw

1584-647: A year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233. Emperor Aizong fled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou also fell to the Mongols in 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty. Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty distinguished three different groups of Jurchens: the Wild Jurchens ( 野人女真 ; yěrén Nǚzhēn ) of what became Outer Manchuria , the Haixi Jurchens ( 海西女真 ) of modern Heilongjiang Province and

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1728-469: Is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens,

1872-560: Is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected the Yongning Temple Stele in front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected

2016-557: Is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism". He said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages". During the Ming dynasty , the Jurchens lived in sub-clans ( mukun or hala mukun ) of ancient clans ( hala ). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans

2160-613: The Old History and the New History . Written from the northern viewpoint, these chronicles organized the history around the Five Dynasties (the north), presenting the Ten Kingdoms (the south) as illegitimate, self-absorbed and indulgent. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period turned away from the international cultural mood of the Tang dynasty and appears as a transition towards the solidified national culture of

2304-685: The Eight Banners , and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The term Manchu , already in official use by the Later Jin at that time, was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people. The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name. The initial Khitan form of the name was said to be Lüzhen . The variant Nrjo-tsyin (now Chinese : 女真 Nüzhen , whence English Nurchen ) appeared in

2448-664: The Jianzhou Jurchens of modern Jilin Province . They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor dispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes. The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) found allies among

2592-454: The Khitan people and Mongols , they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the title Khan for the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was called beile ("prince, nobleman"), corresponding with the Mongolian beki and Turkic baig or bey . Also like the Mongols and

2736-748: The Later Han fell to the Han Chinese-led Later Zhou in 951. With the protection of the powerful Liao dynasty, the Northern Han maintained nominal independence until the Song dynasty wrested it from the Khitans in 979. The smallest of the southern states, Jingnan (924–963), was founded by Gao Jichang , a former general of Liang. It was based in Jiangling and held two other districts southwest of present-day Wuhan in Hubei . Gao

2880-669: The Nivkh (speaking a language isolate ), Negidai , Nanai , Oroqen and many Evenks , are today considered distinct ethnic groups. The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing the Jin (1115–1234) and Qing (1644–1912) conquest dynasties on the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself the Later Jin , was founded by a Jianzhou commander, Nurhaci (r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as

3024-416: The Song dynasty . Throughout the period, there was marked cultural and economic growth, rather than decline. Several Northern dynasties originated in the northeast, and centralisation of the north led to a migration of provincial elites into the capital, particularly northeasterners, creating a new metropolitan culture. After the unification of China by the Song dynasty, the culture, arts and literature of

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3168-508: The Song imperial family , were of mixed Han Chinese-Turkic- Kumo Xi ancestry. The term "Five Dynasties" was coined by Song dynasty historians and reflects the view that the successive regimes based in Kaifeng , controlled the Central Plain and possessed the Mandate of Heaven . The first of the Five Dynasties was founded by Zhu Wen , the rebel defector turned warlord who ultimately ended

3312-745: The Songhua River and Amur River . His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin. The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There

3456-474: The " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. Our gurun (tribe, state) originally had the names Manju, Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called [us] jušen . The term jušen refers to

3600-593: The "seven Wuji tribes", which the Goguryeo people were not a part of. It seems by that point, the Jurchens saw only the Mohe tribes as a related people. Some western scholars consider the origin of Hanpu to be legendary in nature. Herbert Franke described the narrative provided in the History of Jin as an "ancestral legend" with a historical basis in that the Wanyan clan had absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae during

3744-429: The "varied landscape" of China was inspired by Taoism . It emphasized the sacredness of mountains as places between heaven and earth and depicted the natural world as a source of harmony. In later tradition, the Five Dynasties is viewed as a period of judicial abuse and excessive punishment. This view reflects both actual problems with the administration of justice and the bias of Confucian historians, who disapproved of

3888-601: The 10th century under the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as the Nrjo-drik (now Chinese : 女直 Nüzhi ). This is traditionally explained as an effect of the Chinese naming taboo , with the character 真 being removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu, Emperor Xingzong of Liao , because it appeared in the sinified form of his personal name. Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun , however, argues that this

4032-555: The 10th century. Frederick W. Mote described it as a "tribal legend" that may have born the tribe's memories. The two brothers remaining in Goryeo and Balhae may represent ancestral ties to those two peoples while Hanpu's marriage may represent the tribe's transformation from a matrilineal to patrilineal society. Hongtaiji , the Qing dynasty emperor of the Aisin Gioro clan, claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順),

4176-642: The Chanyuan Treaty was the first time that the Liao forced the Song, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the Central Kingdom (Zhong Yuan), to recognize them as peers. This relationship lasted until 1125, when the Song broke the treaty by inviting the Jurchens (later known as Manchus ) to attack the Liao. The Jurchen attack in fact brought an end to both the Liao and the Northern Song relationship. This treaty immediately reduced

4320-691: The Chinese lunar calendar . While the Liao initially sought a territorial concession in Guannan, this demand was eventually abandoned. The terms of the treaty included: Afterward, the two imperial families recognized their equal status by addressing one another in familiar terms. For example, the Liao Emperor addressed the Song Emperor as "elder brother", while the Song Emperor addressed the Liao Empress Dowager as "aunt". Despite

4464-476: The Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with our gurun . Our gurun establishes the name Manju. Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations. Henceforth persons should call our gurun its original name, Manju, and not use the previous demeaning name. Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like

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4608-596: The Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens. The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under

4752-597: The Heje ( Hezhen ) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south. By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of the Khitan rulers of the Liao dynasty . The Jurchens in the Yalu River region had been tributaries of Goryeo since

4896-507: The History of Ming because of this. The Yongzheng Emperor attempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to cast Nurhaci 's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun 龍虎將軍) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven". During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of

5040-525: The Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from

5184-505: The Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with the Mongols . By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south from Zhongdu to Kaifeng . The Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu . After a siege lasting about

5328-471: The Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty . The Jin went on to conquer

5472-542: The Jurchen and the Koreans. This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor . Soon after, Mentemu , chieftain of Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens , defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead. Yi Seong-gye ,

5616-415: The Jurchen living north-west of the Yalu River , notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who served Nurhaci were uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in a long plaited braid . All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics. When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of

5760-525: The Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There

5904-518: The Khitan forces were making serious advances in the Hebei Circuit. To protect Chanyuan, Kou Zhun, the lead planner of the Song expedition, had implemented defensive measures such as trenches, but these defenses were already weakened after heavy fighting, resulting in many thousands of casualties, including many generals. The arrival of the emperor raised the Song troops' morale while ensuring that

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6048-705: The Later Liang regime. Thus began the Shatuo Later Tang—the first in a long line of conquest dynasties . After reuniting much of northern China, in 924 Cunxu received the submission of Shaanxi's Qi kingdom, and in 925 Cunxu conquered the Former Shu , a regime that had been set up in Sichuan . The Later Tang had a few years of relative calm, followed by unrest. In 934, Sichuan again asserted independence. In 936, Shi Jingtang rebelled against Li Congke ,

6192-580: The Later Zhou. After the death of Guo Wei in 954, his adopted son Chai Rong succeeded the throne and began a policy of expansion and reunification. One month after Chai Rong took the throne, Liu Chong, Emperor of Northern Han , allied with Liao dynasty to launch an assault on Later Zhou. Against the advice of Minister Feng Dao, Chai Rong decided to lead his army against the incursion. When Chai Rong engaged Liu Chong at Gao Ping (in modern Jincheng), two of Chai's generals, Fan Aineng and He Hui, fled from

6336-405: The Liao came to regard the emperor as a proxy ruler for China. In 943, the Khitans declared war and within three years seized the capital, Kaifeng , marking the end of Later Jin. But while they had conquered vast regions of China, the Khitans were unable or unwilling to control those regions and retreated from them early in the next year. To fill the power vacuum, the jiedushi Liu Zhiyuan entered

6480-421: The Liao court wished to restore friendly relations. So, Wang facilitated the first talks of peace between the two empires. He had inside information for both of the empires so he knew exactly what each of them wanted in return for peace so he proposed exactly that to both sides. In the end it was Wang who persuaded the empress to give up on her land claims which ultimately led to the Chanyuan Treaty. The signing of

6624-422: The Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 ( Jingkang incident ). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyöm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself

6768-462: The Liao in an attempt to recover territories ceded during the Later Jin. After many victories, he succumbed to illness. In 960, the general Zhao Kuangyin staged a coup and took the throne for himself, founding the Northern Song dynasty . This is the official end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. During the next two decades, Zhao Kuangyin and his successor Zhao Kuangyi defeated

6912-438: The Liao would have been able to create such a trading network and become the international force that they did. Economically, these payments secured the Liao a steady source of income and even helped facilitate trade with its neighbors because it now had more resources to produce goods in which they specialized in. More importantly, this treaty led to the growth of international trade along the Liao-Song border. This treaty allowed

7056-418: The Ming dynasty and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors. The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty was Nurgan . Later, a Korean army led by Yi-Il and Yi Sun-sin would expel them from Korea. In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post ( 奴兒干都司 ) at Telin (present-day Tyr, Russia , about 100 km upstream from Nikolayevsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East ) in

7200-408: The Ming dynasty government. Over a period of 30 years from 1586, Nurhaci , a chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor, Hong Taiji , renamed his people the Manchus as a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals. During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above

7344-424: The Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans . The Mohe rode reindeer. There is no dated evidence of the Jurchens before the time of Wugunai (1021-74), when the Jurchens began to coalesce into a nation-like federation. According to tradition passed down via oral transmission, Wugunai was the 6th generation descendant of Hanpu ,

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7488-580: The Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui or Blackwater Mohe , and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen but this remains conjectural. The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, the Tungusic Mohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom of Balhae . The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet , and rice in addition to hunting. Like all Tungus people ,

7632-442: The Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan. It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of

7776-696: The Northern Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing , in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to the Yangtze River and eventually settled on a border with the Southern Song dynasty along the Huai River . Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin (Jinshi) says that Emperor Shizong of Jin took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181. After 1189,

7920-425: The Sixteen Prefectures. The Song forces were routed and the emperor had to retreat in ignominy. The Song once again tried in 986, this time trying to take advantage of the fact that a boy emperor occupied the Liao throne. The Song advanced on the Sixteen Prefectures in three columns. However, the Liao won decisive victories on all three fronts, and diplomatic relations were soon resumed. Emperor Zhenzong succeeded to

8064-503: The Song Dynasty economic boom. This economic shift to the south also led to a vast southward migration. According to Nicholas Tackett, the three provinces of Hebei (Chengde, Youzhou, Weibo) were able to maintain much greater autonomy from the central government in the aftermath of the An Lushan rebellion. With their administration under local military control, these provinces never submitted tax revenues, and governorships lapsed into hereditary succession. They engaged in occasional war with

8208-420: The Song and the Jurchen Jin agreed to jointly invade the Khitan Liao. This treaty became the basis for relations between the Song and other Chinese states including the Western Xia and the Jin dynasty . Xi Xia incursions in the northwest (at the urging of the Liao) forced the Song to raise their payments to 300,000 bolts of silk and 200,000 ounces of silver. Along the way there were incidents that jeopardized

8352-411: The Song capital of Kaifeng . Reluctantly, Emperor Zhenzong marched northward to meet the Liao at Chanyuan . He decided upon Chanyuan because it was the first large city across from the Yellow River. The emperor believed that crossing the Yellow River in an imperial expedition would have great symbolic and psychological value. The Song began to worry that the expedition was not safe for the emperor because

8496-455: The Song did not cede any territory to the Liao. The accounts of the treaty in the Liao records and the Song records does not tally with each faction. The altering of some details shows a great deal of political boundary maintenance and an attempt at keeping dignity bias, which is prevalent in the Song dynasty faction. After the treaty was signed, the nature of the relationship between these two states changed from one of purely political rivalry to

8640-399: The Song getting an arguably more prestigious position out of the treaty, there was opposition to this treaty among the Song elite. Nevertheless, this treaty avoided any further major wars between the two states. Wang Jizhong, a native of Kaifeng, was captured by the Kitans in 1003 at the battle of Wang-Tu. The Khitan emperor awarded Wang with official rank in the Khitan bureaucracy. Wang made

8784-455: The Song throne in 997. Throughout the decade, relations between the Song and Liao worsened. In 999, the Liao Emperor Shengzong commenced annual attacks against the Song. Each of these attacks won victories, but no significant change occurred until 1004. Emperor Shengzong decided to launch an imperial expedition against the Song personally in the summer of 1004. He took Khitan cavalry and encamped about one hundred miles (160 kilometers) north of

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8928-409: The Song to secure disputed territory in exchange for a very minimal yearly payment. In addition now that the war was over the Song were able to focus on other matters. For one, they were able to advance their foreign diplomacy. On a different note, the Song were able to stop their military spending which was putting a serious strain on their economy. In the grand scheme of things, the yearly payments were

9072-413: The South, gave the South room to innovate free of tight administrative controls. The dominant northern officials had been unwilling to serve in the South during the Tang, and so southerners were recruited by the Tang to serve in a local capacity under the "Southern Selection" supplemental system. These southern officials became the administrative core of the Ten Kingdoms and later dominated the bureaucracy by

9216-439: The Southern states were incorporated into the new regime. The Song dynasty adopted a distinctively Southern Chinese cultural outlook. The preserved cultural traditions of Southern Tang, Wu Yue and Later Shu were used to rebuild the cultural landscape of the north. Southern libraries were transported north, Southeastern architecture was promoted in the new capital, and Southeastern Buddhist icons, clergy and relics were concentrated in

9360-448: The Tang collapsed, several warlords of the Central Plain crowned themselves emperor. During the 70-year period, there was near-constant warfare between the emerging kingdoms and the alliances they formed. All had the ultimate goal of controlling the Central Plain and establishing themselves as the Tang's successor. The last of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms regimes was Northern Han , which held out until Song conquered it in 979. For

9504-408: The Tang dynasty by Wang Jian, who held his court in Chengdu . The kingdom held most of present-day Sichuan , western Hubei , and parts of southern Gansu and Shaanxi . Wang was named military governor of western Sichuan by the Tang court in 891. The kingdom fell when his son surrendered in the face of an advance by the Later Tang in 925. The Later Shu (935–965) is essentially a resurrection of

9648-400: The Tang dynasty. The rest of the Five Dynasties as well as the Song dynasty all emerged from a military organization originally led by Shatuo Turks whose commanders replaced each other in frequent coup d'état . The Later Tang was founded by Li Cunxu , the son of Shatuo leader Li Keyong , who was the main military rival to Zhu Wen in the late Tang. The Later Jin founder Shi Jingtang was

9792-406: The Turks, the Jurchens did not observe primogeniture . According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader. Unlike the Mongols, the Jurchens were a sedentary and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses. "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while

9936-404: The Wanyan, he was already 60 years old and accepted as a "wise man". He succeeded in settling a dispute between two families without resorting to violence, and as a reward, was betrothed to a worthy unmarried maiden also 60 years old. The marriage was blessed with the gift of a dark ox, which was revered in Jurchen culture, and from this union came one daughter and three sons. With this, Hanpu became

10080-639: The Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns of Liaodong . Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures. The Koreans dealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them the Joseon court handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between

10224-494: The armies of Later Tang, Later Han, and Later Zhou. Zhao, also a professional soldier, rose through the ranks of the Later Zhou before seizing the throne in the Chenqiao Mutiny in 960, which ended the era of the Five Dynasties. The Qing historian Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692) wrote that this period could be compared to the earlier Warring States period of ancient China, remarking that none of the rulers could be described as " Son of Heaven ". The Five Dynasties' rulers, despite claiming

10368-470: The battlefield along with their troops. At this critical moment, Chai Rong risked his life to break through the defense and crushed Liu's forces. After this campaign, Chai Rong consolidated his power. Between 956 and 958, forces of Later Zhou conquered much of Southern Tang , the most powerful regime in southern China, which ceded all the territory north of the Yangtze in defeat. In 959, Chai Rong attacked

10512-419: The best of his circumstances and spoke with the Khitans of the advantage of resolving their conflict with the Song peacefully. The dowager empress Ch'eng-t'ien, who was in actual control of the Khitan state at the time, had grown tired of war, and she listened to Wang's proposals. With the Liao empress dowager's approval, Wang submitted a memorial to the Song emperor through the Song prefect of Mochou, stating that

10656-439: The capital is said to have executed suspects without inquiry. The Tang code of 737 was the basic statutory law for this period, together supplemental edicts and collections. The Later Liang promulgated a code in 909. This code was blamed for delays in the administration of justice and said to be excessively harsh with respect to economic crimes. The Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Zhou also produced recompilations. The Later Han

10800-437: The central government, or against each other, and Youzhou seemed to conduct its own foreign policy. This meant that the culture of these northeastern provinces started diverging from the capital. Many of the elites in post-Tang China, including the future emperors of the Song dynasty, came from this region. The administrations of the Five Dynasties and the early Song Dynasty shared a pattern of being disproportionately drawn from

10944-549: The chief of the Wanyan and his descendants became formal members of the Wanyan clan. Because Hanpu arrived from Goryeo, some South Korean scholars have claimed that Hanpu hailed from Goryeo. According to Alexander Kim, this cannot be easily identified as him being Korean because many Balhae people lived in Goryeo at that time. Later when Aguda appealed to the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty for support by emphasizing their common origin, he only mentioned those who descended from

11088-455: The control of the central government. In common with other periods of fragmentation, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period resulted in a division between northern and southern China . The greater stability of the Ten Kingdoms, especially the longevity of Wuyue and Southern Han, would contribute to the development of distinct regional identities within China. The distinction was reinforced by

11232-431: The decentralization and militarization that characterized this period. While Tang procedure called for delaying executions until appeals were exhausted, this was not generally the case in the Five Dynasties. Other abuses included the use of severe torture. The Later Han was the most notorious dynasty in this regard. Suspects could be tortured to death with long knives and nails. The military officer in charge of security of

11376-580: The decline of Tang central authority after the An Lushan Rebellion, there was a growing tendency to superimpose large regional administrations over the old districts and prefectures that had been used since the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). These administrations, known as circuit commissions, would become the boundaries of the later Southern regimes; many circuit commissioners became the emperors or kings of these states. The historian Hugh Clark proposed

11520-475: The descendants of the Ta family of Balhae. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered male Han Chinese within their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving

11664-456: The earlier Jin 晋 dynasties named after the region around Shanxi and Henan provinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning " gold "—is derived from the "Gold River" ( Jurchen :  antʃu-un ; Manchu :  Aisin ) in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to follow Confucian norms. The Jin dynasty captured

11808-531: The eighteenth year of the Song dynasty , when Qian Shu surrendered to the expanding dynasty. The Min (909–945) was founded by Wang Shenzhi, who named himself the Prince of Min with its capital at Changle (present-day Fuzhou ). One of Shenzhi's sons proclaimed the independent state of Yin in the northeast of Min territory. The Southern Tang took that territory after the Min asked for help. Despite declaring loyalty to

11952-454: The emperor's authority. Li Keyong was the jiedushi for the Hedong circuit in present Shanxi, forming a polity called Jin (晉). His son Li Cunxu and Liu Shouguang fiercely fought the regime forces to conquer northern China; Li Cunxu succeeded. He defeated Liu Shouguang (who had proclaimed a Yan Empire in 911) in 915, and declared himself emperor in 923; within a few months, he brought down

12096-575: The ensuing battle would be everlastingly famous. A Song giant crossbow killed the Liao Khitan leader Xiao Dalin in battle in January 1005. This led to despair among the Khitan and crippled their contribution to the offensive. From January 13 to January 18, 1005, the two sides worked out a peace treaty. Some sources say this was in 1004 because of evidence that it happened prior to the New Year on

12240-559: The era's name. Some historians, such as Bo Yang , count eleven, including Yan and Qi but not the Northern Han , viewing it as simply a continuation of Later Han. This era also coincided with the founding of the Liao dynasty in the north, and the Dali Kingdom in the southwest. Other regimes during this period include Zhao , Yiwu Circuit, Dingnan Circuit , Wuping Circuit, Qingyuan Circuit , Yin , Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom , Guiyi Circuit and Xiliangfu . The Yang Wu (902–937)

12384-477: The families of military governors in northern and northwestern China ( Hebei , Shanxi , Shaanxi ), their personal staff, and the bureaucrats who served in the capitals of the Five dynasties. These families had risen to prominence due to the unraveling of central authority after the An Lushan Rebellion, despite lacking esteemed ancestry. The historian Deng Xiaonan argued that many of these military families, including

12528-420: The first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful. The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession. They were divided in 384 guards by

12672-580: The forceful reunification of China by the Later Zhou dynasty and its successor the Song dynasty, and the demilitarisation of the provinces. Southern China, divided into several independent dynastic kingdoms, was more stable than the North which saw constant regime change. Consequently, the Southern kingdoms were able to embark on trade, land reclamation, and infrastructure projects, laying the groundwork for

12816-695: The form of Qingyuan Jiedushi and Wuping Jiedushi  [ zh ] for many years after. With this, Southern Tang became the undisputedly most powerful regime in southern China. However, it was unable to defeat incursions by the Later Zhou between 956 and 958, and ceded all of its land north of the Yangtze River . The Song dynasty, established in 960, was determined to reunify China. Jingnan and Wuping Jiedushi were swept away in 963, Later Shu in 965, Southern Han in 971, and Southern Tang in 975. Finally, Wuyue and Qingyuan Jiedushi gave up their land to Northern Song in 978, bringing all of southern China under

12960-607: The founder of Chu was (according to one source) a carpenter from Xuchang, the founder of Jingnan was a slave from Shanzhou and the founder of Southern Han was a southern tribal chief. The Southern kingdoms were founded by men of low social status who rose up through superior military ability, who were later scorned as "bandits" by future scholars. However, once established, these rulers took great pains to portray themselves as promoters of culture and economic development so as to legitimize their rule; many wooed former Tang courtiers to help administer their states. The economies of each of

13104-576: The founder of the Wanyan clan, who therefore must have lived around the year 900. Hanpu originally came from the Heishui Mohe tribe of Balhae. According to the History of Jin , when he came to the Wanyan tribe, it was for the repayment of a murder and a form of compensation. He had two brothers, one who stayed in Goryeo and the other in Balhae when he left. By the time he arrived and settled among

13248-549: The fourth emperor of the Later Tang. Shi Jingtang, a Shatuo jiedushi from Taiyuan , was aided by the Khitan -led Liao dynasty in his rebellion. In return for their aid, Shi Jingtang promised annual tribute and the Sixteen Prefectures (modern northern Hebei and Beijing ) to the Khitans. The rebellion succeeded, and Shi Jingtang became emperor in this same year. Not long after the founding of Later Jin,

13392-437: The front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted. Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchen queue to strike fear within their population. During the Qing dynasty , the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in a queue , or soncoho ( ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ ) ( 辮子 ; biànzi ),

13536-567: The geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led

13680-539: The imperial capital in 947 and proclaimed the advent of the Later Han , establishing a third successive Shatuo reign. This was the shortest of the five dynasties. Following a coup in 951, General Guo Wei , a Han Chinese , was enthroned, thus beginning the Later Zhou . However, Liu Chong , a member of the Later Han imperial family, established a rival Northern Han regime in Taiyuan and requested Khitan aid to defeat

13824-430: The imperial government, and by the early 10th century the jiedushi commanded de facto independence from its authority. In the last decades of the Tang dynasty, they were not even appointed by the central court anymore, but developed hereditary systems, from father to son or from patron to protégé. They had their own armies rivaling the "palace armies" and amassed huge wealth, as testified by their sumptuous tombs. Due to

13968-558: The land which is now divided between China 's Heilongjiang Province and Russia 's Primorsky Krai province . In earlier records, this area was known as the home of the Sushen ( c.  1100  BC), the Yilou (around AD 200), the Wuji ( c.  500 ), and the Mohe ( c.  700 ). Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of

14112-407: The leadership of Liu Yan seized the territory. In the waning years of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the region was ruled by Zhou Xingfeng . In 963, the region was annexed by Song dynasty. Though considered one of the ten kingdoms, the Northern Han was based in the traditional Shatuo stronghold of Shanxi . It was founded by Liu Min ( 劉旻 ), formerly known as Liu Chong ( 劉崇 ), after

14256-416: The legitimate successor of the Later Han dynasty that fell in 950. As it was under the protection of the Liao, it engendered some friction between the two. However, what concerned the Song even more was the continued Liao possession of the strategic Sixteen Prefectures , which included present-day Beijing . After the Northern Han was destroyed by the Song, the emperor decided to march on Liao holdings in

14400-445: The main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch’on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue,

14544-430: The majority of them were sedentary. Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees by Nurhaci out of political expediency. Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus ( Jušen ) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life

14688-486: The mid-Song. North China South China During the Tang dynasty, the warlord Zhu Wen was originally a member of Huang Chao 's rebel army, he took on a crucial role in suppressing the Huang Chao Rebellion. For this function, he was awarded the Xuanwu Jiedushi title. Within a few years, he had consolidated his power by destroying neighbours and forcing the move of the imperial capital to Luoyang , which

14832-463: The most powerful of the southern states. Wuyue was known for its learning and culture. It was founded by Qian Liu , who set up his capital at Xifu (modern-day Hangzhou ). It was based mostly in modern Zhejiang province but also held parts of southern Jiangsu . Qian Liu was named the Prince of Yue by the Tang emperor in 902; the Prince of Wu was added in 904. After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, he declared himself king of Wuyue. Wuyue survived until

14976-504: The native name, which has been transcribed into Middle Chinese as Trjuwk-li-tsyin ( 竹 里 真 ) and into Khitan small script as Julisen (sulaisin). The ethnonyms Sushen ( Old Chinese : */siwk-[d]i[n]-s/) and Jizhen ( 稷真 , Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/) recorded in geographical works like the Classic of Mountains and Seas and the Book of Wei are possibly cognates. It

15120-581: The neighboring Wuyue , the Southern Tang finished its conquest of Min in 945. The Southern Han (917–971) was founded in Guangzhou by Liu Yan . His brother, Liu Yin , was named regional governor by the Tang court. The kingdom included Guangdong , Guangxi , and Hainan . It was finally conquered by the Song dynasty. The Ma Chu (927–951) was founded by Ma Yin with the capital at Changsha . The kingdom held Hunan and northeastern Guangxi . Ma

15264-420: The new capital so as to reintegrate these traditions into the imperial culture. This was distinct from the five Northern dynasties, who never supported extended monastic lineage networks but instead typically sought to restrict them and draw on their economic and military resources. Although short, the period saw cultural innovations in different areas. Pottery saw the appearance of "white ceramics"/ In painting,

15408-497: The next several centuries, although the Song controlled much of South China, they coexisted alongside the Liao dynasty, Jin dynasty, and various other regimes in China's north, until finally all of them were unified under the Yuan dynasty . Towards the end of the Tang dynasty, the imperial government granted increased powers to the jiedushi , the regional military governors. The An Lushan (755–763) and Huang Chao rebellions weakened

15552-503: The other remaining regimes in South China, conquering Northern Han in 979, starting the Song dynasty era in 982. Unlike the dynasties of northern China, which succeeded one another in rapid succession, the regimes of South China were generally concurrent, each controlling a specific geographical area. These were known as "The Ten Kingdoms" (in fact, some claimed the title of Emperor, such as Former Shu and Later Shu ). Each court

15696-471: The peace between the Liao and Song. Basically, in 1042 the Khitans threatened to launch a military expedition against the Northern Hedong circuit in order to get the Song to increase their annual tributes to the Khitans. Then in 1076 the Song ceded the Liao a few parcels of land along the Hedong border. This inevitably created a predicament because the original guidelines of the treaty made sure that

15840-557: The previous Shu state that had fallen a decade earlier to the Later Tang . Because the Later Tang was in decline and Li Cunxu was killed in a revolt, Meng Zhixiang found the opportunity to reassert Shu's independence. Like the Former Shu, the capital was at Chengdu and it basically controlled the same territory as its predecessor. The kingdom was ruled well until forced to succumb to Song armies in 965. The Southern Tang (937–975)

15984-678: The primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.) Janhunen argues that these records already reflect the Classical Mongolian plural form of the name, recorded in the Secret History as J̌ürčät (Jyrkät), and further reconstructed as * Jörcid , The modern Mongolian form is Зүрчид (Zürčid, Suurseita)) whose medial -r- does not appear in the later Jurchen Jucen or Jušen (Jussin)( Jurchen : [REDACTED] ) or Manchu Jushen (Jussin). In Manchu, this word

16128-498: The region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ( Uiju ), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain. Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . When

16272-527: The reign of Wang Geon , who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada,

16416-410: The reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of the Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region. As

16560-490: The remaining states in South China, but the Liao dynasty still remained in China's north (eventually succeeded by the Jin dynasty ), and the Western Xia was eventually established in China's northwest. Many states had been de facto independent long before 907 as the late Tang dynasty's control over its numerous fanzhen officials waned, but the key event was their recognition as sovereign by foreign powers. After

16704-409: The rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship. The Veritable Records of Ming were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in

16848-414: The rulers of the Southern states were almost all military leaders from the North with their key officers and elite forces also hailing from the North since the bulk of the Tang army was based in the North. The founders of Wu and Former Shu were 'rogues' from Huainan and Xuchang respectively, the founder of Min was a minor government staffer from Huainan, the founder of Wuyue was a 'rogue' from Hangzhou ,

16992-485: The son of a Shatuo commander in Li Keyong's army and became the son-in-law of the Later Tang general and emperor Li Siyuan , who was himself an adopted son of Li Keyong. The Later Han founder Liu Zhiyuan was a Shatuo officer under Li Siyuan and Shi Jintang. The father of the Later Zhou founder Guo Wei fought in Li Keyong's army and Guo served under Liu Zhiyuan. The father of Song founder Zhao Kuangyin served in

17136-498: The southern regions had prospered in the late Tang. Guangdong and Fujian were the sites of important port cities trading exotic goods, the middle Yangtze and Sichuan were centers of tea and porcelain production, and the Yangtze delta was a center of extremely high agricultural production and an entrepot for the other regions. The regions were economically interdependent. Sui and Tang's policies, while paying little attention to developing

17280-508: The status of emperor , sometimes dealt with each other on terms of diplomatic equality out of pragmatic concern. This concept of "sharing the Mandate of Heaven" as "sibling states" was the result of the brief balance of power. After the reunification of China by the Song dynasty, the Song embarked on a special effort to denounce such arrangements. The Southern regimes generally had more stable and effective government during this period. Even

17424-428: The strain on Liao finances. Politically speaking, these annual payments were used to facilitate the construction of Liao's central capital. Peace with the Song allowed the Liao to focus more on their internal affairs and its relations with other people. So, this capital ultimately allowed the Liao to establish an international trade network. Without these annual payments from the Song it would have been highly unlikely that

17568-415: The traditional Manchu hairstyle. Although their Mohe ancestors did not revere dogs, the Jurchens began to revere dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans. Pre-marital sex

17712-465: The various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin. Chinese commanderies were established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In

17856-532: The various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seized Shangjing , also known as Linhuang Prefecture ( 臨潢府 ), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty. During the Jin–Song Wars , the Jurchens invaded the Northern Song dynasty and overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes of Da Qi and Da Chu but later adopted a dynastic name and became known as " Jin " 金, which means "gold", not to be confused with

18000-455: The vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles. From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuch Yishiha (who himself was a Haixi Jurchen ) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along

18144-417: The virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during

18288-484: The wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje . The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by

18432-490: Was a center of artistic excellence. The period is noted for the vitality of its poetry and for its economic prosperity. Commerce grew so quickly that there was a shortage of metallic currency. This was partly addressed by the creation of bank drafts, or "flying money" ( feiqian ), as well as by certificates of deposit. Wood block printing became common during this period, 500 years before Johannes Gutenberg 's press. The Ten Kingdoms were: Only ten are traditionally listed, hence

18576-496: Was a later folk etymology and the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final -n (Nussin, Naisin). The form Niuche was introduced to the West by Martino Martini in his 1654 work De bello tartarico historia , and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map by Nicolas Sanson . Jurchen (Jyrkin) is an anglicization of Jurčen , an attempted reconstruction of this unattested original form of

18720-450: Was common. Jurchen households ( boo ) lived as families ( booigon ) consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads ( tatan ) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies ( niru ) for larger activities, such as war. The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian ( 毛怜 ) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing

18864-609: Was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains . A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it

19008-511: Was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Lim Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan , but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace. Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. it existed apart from

19152-478: Was established in modern-day Jiangsu , Anhui , and Jiangxi . It was founded by Yang Xingmi , who became a Tang dynasty military governor in 892. The capital was initially at Guangling (present-day Yangzhou ) and later moved to Jinling (present-day Nanjing ). The kingdom fell in 937 when it was taken from within by the founder of the Southern Tang . The Wuyue was the longest-lived (907–978) and among

19296-423: Was formally absorbed into the Song dynasty. Although more stable than northern China as a whole, southern China was also torn apart by warfare. Wu quarreled with its neighbours, a trend that continued as Wu was replaced with Southern Tang. In the 940s Min and Chu underwent internal crises which Southern Tang handily took advantage of, destroying Min in 945 and Chu in 951. Remnants of Min and Chu, however, survived in

19440-632: Was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and

19584-576: Was in power too briefly to make a mark on the legal system. Jurchens Jurchen ( Manchu : ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ Jušen , IPA: [dʒuʃən] ; Chinese : 女真 , Nǚzhēn [nỳ.ʈʂə́n] ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking people. They lived in northeastern China, also known as Manchuria , before the 18th century. The Jurchens were renamed Manchus in 1635 by Hong Taiji . Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking

19728-518: Was in the service of the Later Liang (the successor of the Tang in North China). Gao's successors claimed the title of King of Nanping after the fall of the Later Liang in 924. It was a small and weak kingdom, and thus tried to maintain good relations with each of the Five Dynasties. The kingdom fell to advancing armies of the Song in 963. Former Shu (907–925) was founded after the fall of

19872-458: Was more often used to describe the serfs —though not slaves —of the free Manchu people, who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name as Jurcit (Jyrkät). According to William of Rubruck , the Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards." Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited

20016-473: Was named regional military governor by the Tang court in 896, and named himself the Prince of Chu with the fall of the Tang in 907. This status as the Prince of Chu was confirmed by the Southern Tang in 927. The Southern Tang absorbed the state in 951 and moved the royal family to its capital in Nanjing , although Southern Tang rule of the region was temporary, as the next year former Chu military officers under

20160-444: Was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society. Abduction marriages were common. Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered

20304-567: Was the source of Fra Mauro 's Zorça and Marco Polo 's Ciorcia , reflecting the Persian form of their name. Vajda considers that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for " reindeer people" and is cognate with the names of the Orochs (urakka, uroot, urhot) of Khabarovsk Province and the Oroks of Sakhalin . ("Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still

20448-410: Was the successor state of Wu as Li Bian (Emperor Liezu) took the state over from within in 937. Expanding from the original domains of Wu , it eventually took over Yin, Min, and Chu, holding present-day southern Anhui, southern Jiangsu, much of Jiangxi, Hunan, and eastern Hubei at its height. The kingdom became nominally subordinate to the expanding Song in 961 and was invaded outright in 975, when it

20592-451: Was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens. The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops and raised animals . Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang . "建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。 The (people of) Jianzhou and Mao Lian are

20736-441: Was within his region of influence. In 904, he executed Emperor Zhaozong of Tang and made Zhaozong's 13-year-old son Emperor Ai of Tang a subordinate ruler. Three years later, he induced the boy emperor to abdicate in his favour. He then proclaimed himself emperor, thus beginning the Later Liang . In the final years of the Tang dynasty, rival warlords declared independence in the provinces they governed—not all of which recognized

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