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169-666: The office of "Abbot Primate" was created by Pope Leo XIII in 1893. Pope Leo had shown a particular interest in the Benedictines of the world when he sought in 1887 to reestablish the College of Sant'Anselmo in Rome as a means of serving the education of Benedictines throughout the world. Previously, the college had only served for the education of Benedictine monks from the Cassinese congregation . Through Pope Leo's assistance, land

338-616: A hospice inside the Vatican. That building would be torn down in 1996 to make way for construction of the Domus Sanctae Marthae . Leo was a drinker of the cocaine -infused wine tonic Vin Mariani , a precursor drink to Coca-Cola . He awarded a Vatican gold medal to the wine's creator, Angelo Mariani , and also appeared on a poster endorsing it. Leo XIII was a semi-vegetarian . In 1903, he attributed his longevity to

507-483: A suburbicarian diocese , Pecci continually refused due to his preference for Perugia. It is possible that the archbishop did not share the views of the Cardinal Secretary of State , Giacomo Antonelli . It is not true that Pius IX deliberately sent him to Perugia as a way of exiling him from Rome simply because Pecci's views were perceived to be liberalistic and conciliatory, as opposed to the conservatism of

676-559: A Joachimite tract and John of Parma was seen as favoring the condemned theology of Joachim of Fiore . To protect the Order from its enemies, John was forced to step down and recommended Bonaventure as his successor. Bonaventure saw the need to unify the Order around a common ideology and both wrote a new life of the founder and collected the Order's legislation into the Constitutions of Narbonne , so called because they were ratified by

845-476: A Rule in 1221 which he revised and had approved in 1223. After about 1221, the day-to-day running of the Order was in the hands of Brother Elias of Cortona , an able friar who was elected as leader of the friars a few years after Francis's death (1232) but who aroused much opposition because of his autocratic leadership style. He planned and built the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi in which Francis of Assisi

1014-572: A basis for reunion, and they were actually accepted by a general chapter at Assisi in 1430; but the majority of the Conventual houses refused to agree to them, and they remained without effect. At John of Capistrano 's request Eugene IV issued a bull ( Ut sacra minorum , 1446) aimed at the same result, but again nothing was accomplished. Equally unsuccessful were the attempts of the Franciscan Pope Sixtus IV , who bestowed

1183-518: A body of regulations known as the Rule of Saint Francis. The Second Order, most commonly called Poor Clares in English-speaking countries, consists of only one branch of religious sisters. The order is called the Order of St. Clare (OSC), but prior to 1263 they were called "The Poor Ladies", "The Poor Enclosed Nuns", and "The Order of San Damiano". The Franciscan third order , known as

1352-533: A central authority." Therefore, the Pope followed a similar plan with the creation of this new international Benedictine Confederation that incorporated all the congregations without a loss of autonomy for any abbey or congregation. On the question of leadership for this new international confederation, the Pope and the Benedictine abbots had differed because the abbots had wanted a leadership with no control over

1521-550: A century of the death of Francis, members of the Third Order began to live in common, in an attempt to follow a more ascetical way of life. Angela of Foligno (+1309) was foremost among those who achieved great depths in their lives of prayer and service of the poor, while living in community with other women of the Order. Among the men, the Third Order Regular of St. Francis of Penance was formed in 1447 by

1690-411: A certain historical interest, since it shows the natural antipathy of the older Benedictine monasticism to the plebeian mendicant orders. The group was tonsured and Francis was ordained as a deacon, allowing him to proclaim Gospel passages and preach in churches during Mass. Francis had to suffer from the dissensions just alluded to and the transformation they effected in the original constitution of

1859-420: A chapter which they held certain stricter regulations in regard to fasting and the reception of alms, which departed from the spirit of the original rule. It did not take Francis long, on his return, to suppress this insubordinate tendency but he was less successful in regard to another of an opposite nature which soon came up. Elias of Cortona originated a movement for the increase of the worldly consideration of

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2028-678: A cholera epidemic in Rome, he assisted Cardinal Giuseppe Antonio Sala in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals. In 1836, he received his doctorate in theology and doctorates of civil and Canon Law in Rome. On 14 February 1837, Pope Gregory XVI appointed the 27-year-old Pecci as personal prelate even before he was ordained a priest on 31 December 1837 by the Cardinal Vicar Carlo Odescalchi . He celebrated his first Mass with his priest brother Giuseppe. Shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as Papal legate (provincial administrator) to Benevento ,

2197-488: A common interpretation of the 1223 Rule it sent a delegation including Anthony of Padua to Pope Gregory IX for an authentic interpretation of this piece of papal legislation. The bull Quo elongati of Gregory IX declared that the Testament of St. Francis was not legally binding and offered an interpretation of poverty that would allow the Order to continue to develop. Gregory IX authorized agents of

2366-471: A decision in the main favoring his views, and the papal constitution Exivi de paradiso (1313) was on the whole conceived in the same sense. Clement's successor, Pope John XXII (1316–34), favored the laxer or conventual party. By the bull Quorundam exigit he modified several provisions of the constitution Exivi , and required the formal submission of the Spirituals. Some of them, encouraged by

2535-539: A great affection for France, and feared that the Third Republic would take advantage of the fact that most French Catholics were Royalists to abolish the Concordat of 1801 . At the advisement of Cardinal Rampolla , he urged French Catholics to "rally" to the republic. Leo's decision upset many French monarchists, who felt they were being forced to betray their king for their faith. Ultimately, this move split

2704-693: A house of formation, it offers a monastic environment for those who study at the onsite Pontifical Athenaeum of Saint Anselm or at other Roman pontifical universities. When the Abbot Primate appoints his Prior, this monk also serves concurrently as the Rector of the college. The present Rector is Rev. Mauritius Wilde , O.S.B. The Anselmianum , also known as the Pontifical Athenaeum of Saint Anselm ( Italian : Pontificio Ateneo Sant'Anselmo ; Latin : Pontificium Athenaeum Anselmianum ),

2873-464: A long time constituted their principle. Under Pope Clement V (1305–14) this party succeeded in exercising some influence on papal decisions. In 1309 Clement had a commission sit at Avignon for the purpose of reconciling the conflicting parties. Ubertino of Casale , the leader, after Olivi's death, of the stricter party, who was a member of the commission, induced the Council of Vienne to arrive at

3042-740: A papal decree that united several communities of hermits following the Third Order Rule into a single Order with its own Minister General. Today it is an international community of friars who desire to emphasize the works of mercy and on-going conversion. The community is also known as the Franciscan Friars, TOR , and they strive to "rebuild the Church" in areas of high school and college education, parish ministry, church renewal, social justice, campus ministry, hospital chaplaincies, foreign missions, and other ministries in places where

3211-657: A pontifical charter from Pope Leo XIII founded the Catholic University of America , establishing the national university of the Catholic Church in the United States. American newspapers criticized Pope Leo because they claimed that he was attempting to gain control of American public schools. One cartoonist drew Leo as a fox unable to reach grapes that were labeled for American schools; the caption read "Sour grapes!" In 1892, Pope Leo XIII opened

3380-638: A rapprochement between Paris and St. Petersburg. Under Otto von Bismarck , the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf in Prussia led to significant restrictions on the Catholic Church in the German Empire , including the Jesuits Law of 1872 . During Leo's papacy, compromises were informally reached and the anti-Catholic attacks subsided. The Centre Party in Germany represented Catholic interests and

3549-403: A variety of European political crises, it was generally believed that the long papacy of the conservative Pius IX led many of the cardinals to vote for Pecci because his age and health created the expectation that his papacy would be somewhat brief. Following the conclave, John Henry Newman is reported to have said, "In the successor of Pius IX recognize a depth of thought, a tenderness of heart,

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3718-478: A vast number of privileges on both of the original mendicant orders, but by this very fact lost the favor of the Observants and failed in his plans for reunion. Julius II succeeded in reducing some of the smaller branches, but left the division of the two great parties untouched. This division was finally legalized by Leo X , after a general chapter held in Rome in 1517, in connection with the reform-movement of

3887-506: A winning simplicity, and a power answering to the name of Leo, which prevent me from lamenting that Pius is no longer here". In the conclave, Pecci was perceived as the main " papabile " candidate; however, Cardinals Flavio Chigi and Tommaso Martinelli were also considered as potential candidates. But some cardinals who opposed Pecci, and were alarmed at the rising votes he was securing, banded together to cast their ballots for Cardinal Alessandro Franchi ; however, Franchi secured no votes in

4056-679: Is Jeremias Schröder , O.S.B. The ecclesiastical residential College of Sant'Anselmo is juridically considered the successor of the homonymous college of the Cassinese Benedictine Congregation which was founded in 1687. The present college was reestablished in 1887 and moved to the newly constructed "Sant'Anselmo" on the Aventine Hill in 1896. Today the residential college houses an average of one hundred Benedictine monks from about forty countries, as well as other religious, diocesan priests, and lay people. As

4225-437: Is buried, a building which includes the friary Sacro Convento , still today the spiritual centre of the Order. In the external successes of the brothers, as they were reported at the yearly general chapters, there was much to encourage Francis. Caesar of Speyer , the first German provincial , a zealous advocate of the founder's strict principle of poverty, began in 1221 from Augsburg , with twenty-five companions, to win for

4394-450: Is meritorious and holy; Christ, also, showing the way of perfection, taught it by word and confirmed it by example, and the first founders of the church militant, as they had drawn it from the fountainhead itself, distributed it through the channels of their teaching and life to those wishing to live perfectly." Although Exiit qui seminat banned disputing about its contents, the decades that followed saw increasingly bitter disputes about

4563-459: Is open to external students. The Abbot Primate is officially the " Grand Chancellor " of the Athenaeum and the present Rector of the Athenaeum is Rev. Bernhard A. Eckerstorfer, O.S.B. The Church which was consecrated on 11 November 1900 and is constructed of three naves, divided by granite columns , and includes one main altar and two side altars. A large section on the east and west ends near

4732-610: Is the Ordo Fratrum Minorum . Francis thus referred to his followers as "Fraticelli", meaning "Little Brothers". Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites . The modern organization of the Friars Minor comprises three separate families or groups, each considered a religious order in its own right under its own minister General and particular type of governance. They all live according to

4901-688: Is the pontifical university in Rome associated with the Benedictines . The institution includes faculties of Philosophy, Theology (Sacramental Theology, Monastic Studies), the Institute of Historical Theology, as well as the Pontifical Institute of Liturgy. It grants certificates and diplomas in various subjects, as well as Bachelor, Licentiate, and Doctoral degrees. Originally the university exclusively served only Benedictines , but now

5070-453: The Expositio regulae written by David of Augsburg soon after 1260. The successor to Bonaventure, Jerome of Ascoli or Girolamo Masci (1274–79), (the future Pope Nicholas IV ), and his successor, Bonagratia of Bologna (1279–85), also followed a middle course. Severe measures were taken against certain extreme Spirituals who, on the strength of the rumor that Pope Gregory X

5239-494: The Editio Leonina in 1879. Leo XIII is particularly remembered for his belief that pastoral activity in political sociology was also a vital mission of the church as a vehicle of social justice and maintaining the rights and dignities of the human person. Leo XIII issued a record of eleven papal encyclicals on the rosary, earning him the title of the "Rosary Pope". In addition, he approved two new Marian scapulars. He

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5408-512: The Anglican and Lutheran traditions. Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval from Pope Innocent III in 1209 to form a new religious order. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope did not allow ownership of property, requiring members of the order to beg for food while preaching. The austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ . Franciscans traveled and preached in

5577-544: The Basilica of Saint John Lateran . Born in Carpineto Romano , near Rome, he was the sixth of the seven children of Count Ludovico Pecci (1767–1833) and his wife, Anna Francesca Prosperi Buzzi (1773–1824). His brothers included Giuseppe and Giovanni Battista Pecci. Until 1818, he lived at home with his family "in which religion counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her, salvation can be earned for all eternity". Together with Giuseppe, he studied in

5746-533: The Bishop of Assisi , Guido, then Cardinal Giovanni di San Paolo and finally Innocent himself, was their utter loyalty to the Catholic Church and the clergy. Innocent III was not only the pope reigning during the life of Francis of Assisi, but he was also responsible for helping to construct the church Francis was being called to rebuild. Innocent III and the Fourth Lateran Council helped maintain

5915-535: The Capuchin Poor Clares ( OSC Cap. – founded 1538), and the Poor Clares of Perpetual Adoration ( PCPA – founded 1854). The Third Order of Saint Francis comprises people who desired to grow in holiness in their daily lives without entering monastic life. After founding the Friars Minor and seeing a need, Francis created a way of life to which married men and women, as well as the single and

6084-508: The College of Cardinals , as Cardinal-Priest of San Crisogono . Pope Gregory XVI originally intended to name him as a cardinal; however, his death in 1846 put pause to that idea while the events that characterized the beginning of the papacy of Pius IX further postponed the idea of Pecci's elevation. By the time that Gregory XVI died, Leopold II repeatedly asked that Pecci be named as a cardinal. While Pius IX strongly desired having Pecci as close to Rome as possible, and repeatedly offered him

6253-637: The Fifth Lateran Council , had once more declared the impossibility of reunion. The less strict principles of the Conventuals, permitting the possession of real estate and the enjoyment of fixed revenues, were recognized as tolerable, while the Observants, in contrast to this usus moderatus , were held strictly to their own usus arctus or pauper . All of the groups that followed the Franciscan Rule literally were united to

6422-550: The First Vatican Council , was to take place in the Vatican per Pope Pius IX . Pecci was likely well informed since the pope named his brother Giuseppe to help prepare the event. During the 1870s, in his last years in Perugia, Pecci addressed the role of the church in modern society several times, defining the church as the mother of material civilization because it upheld human dignity of working people, opposed

6591-611: The Jesuit College in Viterbo until 1824. He enjoyed Latin and was known to have written his own Latin poems at the age of eleven. Leo was a descendant of the Italian leader Cola di Rienzo on his mother's side. His siblings were: In 1824, he and Giuseppe were called to Rome, where their mother was dying. Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife and so they stayed with him in Rome and attended

6760-575: The Order of Saint Clare , are members of a contemplative order of nuns in the Catholic Church . The Poor Clares were the second Franciscan order to be established. Founded by Clare of Assisi and Francis of Assisi on Palm Sunday in the year 1212, they were organized after the Order of Friars Minor (the first order), and before the Third Order of Saint Francis. As of 2011 there were over 20,000 Poor Clare nuns in over 75 countries throughout

6929-738: The Portuguese authorities . A papal rescript (20 April 1888) condemned the Irish Plan of Campaign and all clerical involvement in it as well as boycotting, followed in June by the papal encyclical "Saepe Nos" that was addressed to all the Irish bishops. Of outstanding significance, not least for the English-speaking world, was Leo's encyclical Apostolicae curae on the invalidity of the Anglican orders, published in 1896. In 1899, he declared Bede

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7098-513: The Third Order of Saint Francis , has many men and women members, separated into two main branches: The 2013 Annuario Pontificio gave the following figures for the membership of the principal male Franciscan orders:. The coat of arms that is a universal symbol of Franciscan "contains the Tau cross , with two crossed arms: Christ's right hand with the nail wound and Francis' left hand with

7267-488: The Vatican archives to William Eleroy Curtis , a special envoy planning the commemoration of Christopher Columbus at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition . Franciscans The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant religious orders of the Catholic Church . Founded in 1209 by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi , these orders include three independent orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor being

7436-463: The religious habit for his order, and had others who wished to join him do the same. Those who joined him became the original Order of Friars Minor. The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor, or Seraphic Order are commonly called simply the Franciscans . This order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name

7605-471: The rights of workers to a fair wage , safe working conditions , and the formation of trade unions , while affirming the rights to property and free enterprise , opposing both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism . With that encyclical, he became popularly titled as the "Social Pope" and the "Pope of the Workers", also having created the foundations for modern thinking in the social doctrines of

7774-582: The secular clergy , could belong and live according to the Gospel. The Secular Franciscan Order , prior to 1978 also known as the Third Order Secular of Saint Francis, is an order founded by Francis in 1212 for brothers and sisters who do not live in a religious community. Members of the order continue to live secular lives, however they do gather regularly for fraternal activities. In the United States alone there are 17,000 professed members of

7943-467: The "Observant" branch, is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being the " Conventuals " (formed 1517) and " Capuchins " (1520). The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of several smaller orders completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII . The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within

8112-647: The 14th century Codex Casanatensis for use by Inquisitors in Tuscany. As well as acting as prosecutors, many friars, particularly those associated with the Spiritual Franciscans and even some Observants , were also subject to interrogation and prosecution by the Inquisition at various stages in the 13th and 14th centuries. Notable cases from the Spirituals include Angelo da Clareno and Bernard Délicieux . Notable examples of Observants include

8281-553: The 1960s before declining after the 1970s. The Order is headed by a Minister General, who since July 2021 is Father Massimo Fusarelli. The Order of Friars Minor Conventual ( OFM Conv. ) consists of 290 houses worldwide with a total of almost 5000 friars. They have experienced growth in this century throughout the world. They are located in Italy, the United States, Canada, Australia, and throughout Latin America, and Africa. They are

8450-538: The 20th century by his successors. In his Memoirs , Emperor Wilhelm II discussed the "friendly, trustful relationship that existed between me and Pope Leo XIII." During Wilhelm's third visit to Leo: "It was of interest to me that the Pope said on this occasion that Germany must be the sword of the Catholic Church. I remarked that the old Roman Empire of the German nation no longer existed, and that conditions had changed. But he adhered to his words." Leo XIII possessed

8619-552: The Abbot Primate resides there as Abbot and he appoints a " Prior " to serve on his behalf. The complex comprises the " College of Sant'Anselmo " ( Italian : Collegio Sant'Anselmo ), the " Pontifical Athenaeum of Saint Anselm " ( Italian : Pontificio Ateneo Sant’Anselmo ), the Church of Sant'Anselmo ( Italian : Chiesa Sant'Anselmo ), and serves as the curial headquarters of the Confederation and Abbot Primate ( Italian : Badia Sant'Anselmo ). The current Abbot Primate

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8788-707: The Bavarian and his pope had to flee Rome before an attack by Robert, King of Naples . Only a small part of the Franciscan Order joined the opponents of John XXII, and at a general chapter held in Paris in 1329 the majority of all the houses declared their submission to the Pope. With the bull Quia vir reprobus of 16 November 1329, John XXII replied to Michael of Cesena's attacks on Ad conditorem canonum , Quum inter nonnullos , and Quia quorundam . In 1330, Antipope Nicholas V submitted, followed later by

8957-546: The Beghards, was suppressed by the Inquisition during the controversies under John XXII. This was founded in the hermitage of St. Bartholomew at Brugliano near Foligno in 1334. The congregation was suppressed by the Franciscan general chapter in 1354; reestablished in 1368 by Paolo de' Trinci of Foligno; confirmed by Gregory XI in 1373, and spread rapidly from Central Italy to France, Spain, Hungary, and elsewhere. Most of

9126-463: The Catholic Church , influencing the thoughts of his successors. He influenced the Mariology of the Catholic Church and promoted both the rosary and the scapular . Upon his election, he immediately sought to revive Thomism , the theological system of Thomas Aquinas , desiring to refer to it as the official theological and philosophical foundation for the Catholic Church. As a result, he sponsored

9295-417: The Catholic Church back to the mainstream of European life. Considered a great diplomat, he managed to improve relations with Russia , Germany , France , Britain and other countries. Pope Leo XIII was able to reach several agreements in 1896 that resulted in better conditions for the faithful and additional appointments of bishops. During the fifth cholera pandemic in 1891, he ordered the construction of

9464-577: The Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases. Conventual Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit . In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines , after Bernardino of Siena , although the term elsewhere refers to Cistercians instead. The name of the original order, Ordo Fratrum Minorum (Friars Minor, literally 'Order of Lesser Brothers') stems from Francis of Assisi's rejection of luxury and wealth. Francis

9633-548: The Celestines was separated from the Franciscan section, and the latter was formally suppressed by Pope Boniface VIII in 1302. The leader of the Observantists, Olivi, who spent his last years in the Franciscan house at Tarnius and died there in 1298, had pronounced against the extremer "Spiritual" attitude, and given an exposition of the theory of poverty which was approved by the more moderate Observantists, and for

9802-788: The Cenacle and gave it to the Franciscans. Pope Clement VI by the Bulls Gratias agimus and Nuper charissimae (1342) declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church. The Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land is still in force today. Elias was a lay friar, and encouraged other laymen to enter the order. This brought opposition from many ordained friars and ministers provincial, who also opposed increased centralization of

9971-408: The Confederation, the pope wished that the clearer title of Primas be used." After the papal brief of 2 May 1893 established this new Benedictine Confederation with its Abbot Primate, the Vatican followed this with a decree in September 1893 ( Inaestimabilis ) that set-out the specific rights and function of the Abbot Primate. Firstly, the Abbot Primate would reside in Rome to serve as the Abbot of

10140-498: The Congress of Abbots and approved by the Vatican. A more detailed analysis of the development and evolution of the lex propria is not offered here, but this guiding constitutional document outlines the rights and responsibilities for the Abbot Primate, the College of Abbots, the Benedictine Confederation, the Pontificio Sant'Anselmo, and the College of Sant'Anselmo. While the Abbot Primate has minimal juridical authority over individual monasteries or congregations (unless they are one of

10309-410: The Conventuals, including the quasi-Observantist brothers living under the rule of the Conventual ministers (Martinianists or Observantes sub ministris ), such as the male Colletans, later led by Boniface de Ceva in his reform attempts principally in France and Germany; the reformed congregation founded in 1426 by the Spaniard Philip de Berbegal and distinguished by the special importance they attached to

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10478-411: The Franciscans in New Spain began in 1523, when three Flemish friars—Juan de Ayora, Pedro de Tecto, and Pedro de Gante—reached the central highlands. Their impact as missionaries was limited at first, since two of them died on Cortés 's expedition to Central America in 1524, but Fray Pedro de Gante initiated the evangelization process and studied the Nahuatl language through his contacts with children of

10647-462: The French Solesmes Congregation in 1837, the American-Cassinese Congregation in 1855, the Beuronese Congregation in 1868, the Subiaco Congregation in 1872, and the Swiss-American Congregation in 1881. Each "congregation" would have its own constitution and elect its own "Abbot President." While commendable, Pope Leo sought to address the further reality that the "congregations existed side by side without any bond between them, or any semblance of

10816-407: The French Church politically and decreased its influence in France. Leo's move also failed to prevent the Concordant's eventual repealment, as it was later abrogated by the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State . In the light of a climate hostile to the Catholic Church, Leo continued the policies of Pius IX towards Italy without major modifications. In his relations with

10985-454: The Indian elite from the city of Tetzcoco . Later, in May 1524, with the arrival of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico , led by Martín de Valencia . There they built the Convento Grande de San Francisco , which became Franciscan headquarters for New Spain for the next three hundred years. The Order of Friars Minor ( OFM ) has 1,500 houses in about 100 provinces and custodiae , with about 16,000 members. In 1897, Pope Leo XIII combined

11154-456: The Italian state took over Catholic schools, Pecci, fearing for his theological seminary, simply added all secular topics from other schools and opened the seminary to non-theologians. The new government also levied taxes on the Catholic Church and issued legislation according to which all episcopal or papal utterances were to be approved by the government before their publication. On 8 December 1869, an ecumenical council , which became known as

11323-425: The Italian state, Leo continued the Papacy's self-imposed incarceration-in-the-Vatican stance and continued to insist that Italian Catholics should not vote in Italian elections or hold any elected office. In his first consistory in 1879, he elevated his older brother, Giuseppe , to the cardinalate. He had to defend the freedom of the church against what Catholics considered Italian persecution and discrimination in

11492-525: The Jesuit Collegium Romanum . In 1828, the 18-year-old Vincenzo decided in favour of secular clergy , and Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order. Vincenzo studied at the Academia dei Nobili , mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834, he gave a student presentation, attended by several cardinals , on papal judgments. For his presentation, he received awards for academic excellence and gained the attention of Vatican officials. Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Lambruschini introduced him to Vatican congregations. During

11661-406: The Observantist houses joined this congregation by degrees, so that it became known simply as the "brothers of the regular Observance." It acquired the favor of the popes by its energetic opposition to the heretical Fraticelli , and was expressly recognized by the Council of Constance (1415). It was allowed to have a special vicar-general of its own and legislate for its members without reference to

11830-448: The Observantist party with his own order of hermits (see Celestines ) was scarcely more successful. Only a part of the Spirituals joined the new order, and the secession scarcely lasted beyond the reign of the hermit-pope. Pope Boniface VIII annulled Celestine's bull of foundation with his other acts, deposed the general Raymond Gaufredi , and appointed a man of laxer tendency, John de Murro , in his place. The Benedictine section of

11999-421: The Observants, Discalced (Alcantarines), Recollects, and Riformati into one order under general constitutions. While the Capuchins and Conventuals wanted the reunited Observants to be referred to as The Order of Friars Minor of the Leonine Union, they were instead called simply the Order of Friars Minor . Despite the tensions caused by this forced union the Order grew from 1897 to reach a peak of 26,000 members in

12168-556: The Observants, and the right to elect the Minister General of the Order , together with the seal of the Order, was given to this united grouping. This grouping, since it adhered more closely to the rule of the founder, was allowed to claim a certain superiority over the Conventuals. The Observant general (elected now for six years, not for life) inherited the title of "Minister-General of the Whole Order of St. Francis" and

12337-446: The Order and the adaptation of its system to the plans of the hierarchy which conflicted with the original notions of the founder and helped to bring about the successive changes in the rule already described. Francis was not alone in opposition to this lax and secularizing tendency. On the contrary, the party which clung to his original views and after his death took his "Testament" for their guide, known as Observantists or Zelanti ,

12506-400: The Order at its chapter held at Narbonne , France, in 1260. In the chapter of Pisa three years later Bonaventure's Legenda maior was approved as the only biography of Francis and all previous biographies were ordered to be destroyed. Bonaventure ruled (1257–74) in a moderate spirit, which is represented also by various works produced by the order in his time – especially by

12675-468: The Order but also led the Order towards a greater clericalization. The new Pope Innocent IV supported them in this. In a bull of November 14, 1245, this pope even sanctioned an extension of the system of financial agents, and allowed the funds to be used not simply for those things that were necessary for the friars but also for those that were useful. The Observantist party took a strong stand in opposition to this ruling and agitated so successfully against

12844-591: The Order the land watered by the Rhine and the Danube . In 1224 Agnellus of Pisa led a small group of friars to England. The branch of the Order arriving in England became known as the "greyfriars". Beginning at Greyfriars at Canterbury , the ecclesiastical capital, they moved on to London , the political capital, and Oxford , the intellectual capital. From these three bases the Franciscans swiftly expanded to embrace

13013-468: The Order to have custody of such funds where they could not be spent immediately. Elias pursued with great severity the principal leaders of the opposition, and even Bernardo di Quintavalle , the founder's first disciple, was obliged to conceal himself for years in the forest of Monte Sefro . The conflict between the two parties lasted many years and the Zelanti won several notable victories in spite of

13182-455: The Order. Gregory IX declared his intention to build a splendid church to house the body of Francis and the task fell to Elias, who at once began to lay plans for the erection of a great basilica at Assisi, to enshrine the remains of the Poverello . In order to build the basilica, Elias proceeded to collect money in various ways to meet the expenses of the building. Elias thus also alienated

13351-438: The Order. He died in 1253, after succeeding by recantation in obtaining the removal of his censures. Under John of Parma, who enjoyed the favor of Innocent IV and Pope Alexander IV , the influence of the Order was notably increased, especially by the provisions of the latter pope in regard to the academic activity of the brothers. He not only sanctioned the theological institutes in Franciscan houses, but did all he could to support

13520-596: The Papacy Ludwig von Pastor . He also refounded the Vatican Observatory "so that everyone might see clearly that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed to true and solid science, whether human or divine, but that they embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible devotion." Leo XIII brought normality back to the Catholic Church after the tumultuous years of Pius IX. Leo's intellectual and diplomatic skills helped regain much of

13689-595: The Vatican and to the world. Next, he would serve as the "Grand Chancellor" of the newly reestablished College of Sant'Anselmo where he would govern the work on behalf of the Benedictine Confederation. It seems clear to most historians that Pope Leo XIII at least initially envisioned establishing a superior for the Benedictines to function like those of other religious orders such as the Jesuits , Franciscans , or Dominicans . Instead, by establishing

13858-689: The Venerable a Doctor of the Church . In 1880, the Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey in Catalonia celebrated 1000 years of existence. On 11 September 1881, to coincide with the Catalan national day, Leo XIII proclaimed the Virgin of Montserrat to be Patron of Catalonia. This had implications beyond the purely religious sphere, influencing the development of Catalan nationalism . Leo XIII welcomed

14027-524: The activities of Leo XIII that were important for the English-speaking world, he restored the Scottish hierarchy in 1878. The following year, on 12 May 1879, he raised to the rank of cardinal the convert theologian John Henry Newman , who would eventually be beatified by Pope Benedict XVI in 2010 and canonized by Pope Francis in 2019. In British India , too, Leo established a Catholic hierarchy in 1886 and regulated some longstanding conflicts with

14196-486: The administration of the Perugia see until 1880. As soon as he was elected to the papacy, Leo XIII worked to encourage understanding between the church and the modern world. When he firmly reasserted the scholastic doctrine that science and religion coexist, he required the study of Thomas Aquinas and opened the Vatican Secret Archives to qualified researchers, among whom was the noted historian of

14365-441: The analogies of the general of an order. Today, the Benedictine Confederation is governed by its own Vatican approved constitution known as a "Lex Propria" that has been updated at various times and it, too, would outline the rights and function of the Abbot Primate. This lex propria is grounded in the founding documents of " Summum Semper " and " Inaestimabilis " but allows for the flexibility of emendations and provisions proposed by

14534-517: The apse includes the traditional stalls for the monastic choir. The church serves as a place of worship for the Benedictine residential college community and the students of the Athenaeum. It is also known, especially to the Romans, for the performances of Gregorian chant offered by the monks during the Sunday liturgical celebrations of Vespers . Since 1962, the church has also been the starting point of

14703-506: The area of education, expropriation and violation of Catholic Churches, legal measures against the church and acts of terrorism such as anticlerical groups attempting to throw the corpse of Pope Pius IX into the Tiber on 13 July 1881. The pope even considered moving his residence to Trieste or Salzburg , two cities in Austria , an idea that Emperor Franz Joseph I gently rejected. Among

14872-399: The autonomous abbeys and congregations. Their proposal was for a mere "representative" that could at least be able to also oversee the new international College of Sant'Anselmo. While Pope Leo was amenable to most of their other proposals, on this one issue of leadership he differed. As one historian noted, "instead of the consciously understated title of Repraesentans for the symbolic head of

15041-496: The beginning simply by preaching and acting as living examples of the Gospel life. As official Inquisitors, they were authorized to use torture to extract confessions, as approved by Pope Innocent IV in 1252 while John of Parma was General Minister. The Franciscans were involved in the torture and trials of Jews, Muslims, and other heretics throughout the Middle Ages and wrote their own manuals to guide Inquisitors, such as

15210-402: The brief outlined the new creation of a " Benedictine Confederation. " This was in keeping with the previous formation of national congregations of Benedictine monasteries that had been formed since the 13th century as a means of support for each other. Even in the 1800s autonomous monasteries had begun to join together in collaborative efforts that would see the creation of "congregations" such as

15379-415: The brotherhood making it a regular order under strict supervision from Rome. Exasperated by the demands of running a growing and fractious Order, Francis asked Pope Honorius III for help in 1219. He was assigned Cardinal Ugolino as protector of the Order by the pope. Francis resigned the day-to-day running of the Order into the hands of others but retained the power to shape the Order's legislation, writing

15548-422: The camerlengo. On 18 February 1878, the conclave assembled in Rome. Cardinal Pecci was elected on the third ballot and chose the name Leo XIII. He was crowned on 3 March 1878. During the conclave, he secured his election on the third scrutiny with 44 out of 61 votes, more than the requisite two-thirds majority. While the 1878 conclave was characterized by fewer political influences than in previous conclaves due to

15717-591: The cardinalate in late 1853, and in light of continuing earthquakes and floods, he donated all resources for the festivities of his elevation to the victims. Much of the public attention turned on the conflict between the Papal States and Italian nationalism , which aimed at the Papal States' annihilation to achieve the Unification of Italy . In the consistory of 19 December 1853, he was elevated to

15886-456: The cardinals created by the late pope intended to vote for Bilio to honor the man that elevated them in the first place, they feared that voting for an ultra-conservative could potentially evoke a veto from one of the European powers and stall the election more than was necessary. To that end, there had been early talks about Austria possibly vetoing Bilio; however, this never occurred. Before

16055-549: The church in Europe. Innocent probably saw in them a possible answer to his desire for an orthodox preaching force to counter heresy. Many legends have clustered around the decisive audience of Francis with the pope. The realistic account in Matthew Paris , according to which the pope originally sent the shabby saint off to keep swine, and only recognized his real worth by his ready obedience, has, in spite of its improbability,

16224-413: The conclave, Cardinals Domenico Bartolini , Monaco, Bilio, Henry Edward Manning , Lorenzo Nina , and Franchi (proposed by Pecci's opponents) all agreed on supporting Pecci's candidacy, also determining that the next pope needed to be an Italian. Both Manning and Edward Henry Howard agreed to persuade the foreign cardinals to back Pecci's candidacy. Upon his election, he announced that he would assume

16393-532: The condition of the Catholic Church in that country . In Belgium, the school question was sharply debated between the Catholic majority and the liberal minority. Pecci encouraged the struggle for Catholic schools, but he was able to win the good will of the Court not only of the pious Queen Louise but also of King Leopold I , who was strongly liberal in his views. The new nuncio succeeded in uniting Catholics. At

16562-444: The congregations in some way together. How this could be done seems never to have been thought out; hence the articles proposed in 1893 were a vague compromise. But the fact that the novel title of abbot primate was devised for the head is an indication that the character of his office was intended to be sought from the analogies of the primate among the bishops of a country, who is without jurisdiction over them (Codex, can 271), not from

16731-573: The conventual part of the Order. Through the work of such men as Bernardino of Siena , Giovanni da Capistrano , and Dietrich Coelde (b. 1435? at Munster; was a member of the Brethren of the Common Life , died December 11, 1515), it gained great prominence during the 15th century. By the end of the Middle Ages, the Observantists, with 1,400 houses, comprised nearly half of the entire Order. Their influence brought about attempts at reform even among

16900-670: The death of its founder in 1481; the Amadeists, founded by the noble Portuguese Amadeo, who entered the Franciscan order at Assisi in 1452, gathered around him a number of adherents to his fairly strict principles (numbering finally twenty-six houses), and died in the odor of sanctity in 1482. Projects for a union between the two main branches of the Order were put forth not only by the Council of Constance but by several popes, without any positive result. By direction of Pope Martin V , John of Capistrano drew up statutes which were to serve as

17069-504: The division between brothers occupied in manual labor and those employed on spiritual missions as a corruption of the fundamental principles of the Order. They were not won over by the conciliatory attitude of the next general, Raymond Gaufredi (1289–96), and of the Franciscan Pope Nicholas ;IV (1288–92). The attempt made by the next pope, Celestine V , an old friend of the order, to end the strife by uniting

17238-603: The economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with the neighboring provinces. Pecci was first destined for Spoleto , a province of 100,000. On 17 July 1841, he was sent to Perugia with 200,000 inhabitants. His immediate concern was to prepare the province for a papal visitation in the same year. Pope Gregory XVI visited hospitals and educational institutions for several days, asking for advice and listing questions. The fight against corruption continued in Perugia , where Pecci investigated several incidents. When it

17407-474: The elevation of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (the later Ferdinand I of Bulgaria ) to Prince of Bulgaria in 1886. A fellow Catholic, whose wife was a member of the Italian House of Bourbon-Parma , the two had a lot in common. However, relations between the two degenerated when Ferdinand expressed his intention to allow his eldest son Crown Prince Boris (later Tsar Boris III ) to convert to Orthodoxy,

17576-511: The end of his mission, the King granted him the Grand Cordon in the Order of Leopold . In 1843, Pecci had been named papal assistant . From 1846 to 1877, he was considered a popular and successful Archbishop of Perugia . In 1847, after Pope Pius IX granted unlimited freedom for the press in the Papal States, Pecci, who had been highly popular in the first years of his episcopate, became

17745-493: The ex-general Michael, and finally, just before his death, by Ockham. Out of all these dissensions in the 14th century sprang a number of separate congregations, or almost sects, to say nothing of the heretical parties of the Beghards and Fraticelli , some of which developed within the Order on both hermit and cenobitic principles and may here be mentioned: The Clareni or Clarenini was an association of hermits established on

17914-568: The excesses of industrialization and developed large-scale charities for the needy. In August 1877, on the death of Cardinal Filippo de Angelis , Pope Pius IX appointed him Camerlengo , which required him to reside in Rome. Reportedly, Pius IX is alleged to have said to Pecci: "Monsignor, I have decided to summon you to the Senate of the Church. I feel sure this will be the first act of my pontificate that you will not feel called upon to criticize". These comments were reported to have been said due to

18083-509: The excesses of the Spirituals, who contended eagerly for the view that Christ and his apostles had possessed absolutely nothing, either separately or jointly, and who were citing Exiit qui seminat in support of their view. In 1317, John XXII formally condemned the group of them known as the Fraticelli. On 26 March 1322, with Quia nonnunquam , he removed the ban on discussion of Nicholas III's bull and commissioned experts to examine

18252-440: The favor shown to their opponents by the papal administration, until finally the reconciliation of the two points of view was seen to be impossible and the order was actually split into halves. Elias governed the Order from the center, imposing his authority on the provinces (as had Francis). A reaction to this centralized government was led from the provinces of England and Germany. At the general chapter of 1239, held in Rome under

18421-508: The fictitious structure that gave the appearance of absolute poverty to the life of the Franciscan friars. Influential members of the order protested, such as the minister general Michael of Cesena , the English provincial William of Ockham , and Bonagratia of Bergamo . In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the pope of heresy. In reply to the argument of his opponents that Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat

18590-451: The final ballot that saw Pecci duly elected. Allegedly, those who were dedicated to thwarting his election were Cardinals Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano , Pietro Giannelli , Chigi, Lorenzo Ilarione Randi, Carlo Sacconi , Raffaele Monaco La Valletta , Luigi Amat di San Filippo e Sorso , and Johann Baptist Franzelin . It was also suggested that, before his death, Pius IX heavily favored Cardinal Luigi Bilio to succeed him, and while many of

18759-423: The first rule which Francis gave them (probably as early as 1209) which seems to have been nothing more than a collection of Scriptural passages emphasizing the duty of poverty. In spite of some similarities between this principle and some of the fundamental ideas of the followers of Peter Waldo , the brotherhood of Assisi succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Innocent III . What seems to have impressed first

18928-622: The form of poverty to be observed by Franciscans, with the Spirituals (so called because associated with the Age of the Spirit that Joachim of Fiore had said would begin in 1260) pitched against the Conventual Franciscans . Pope Clement V 's bull Exivi de Paradiso of 20 November 1312 failed to effect a compromise between the two factions. Clement V's successor, Pope John XXII was determined to suppress what he considered to be

19097-656: The four burned during the suppression of the Observant houses in 1318 mentioned above. Some 300,000 Jews, up to a quarter of the Spanish population, had to convert to Catholicism or flee Spain, or were killed in the Spanish Inquisition . The Inquisition spread to the new world during the Age of Discovery to root out heretics, leading further persecution and execution (e.g., Mexican Inquisition ). The work of

19266-895: The friars in the Mendicant Controversy, when the secular Masters of the University of Paris and the Bishops of France combined to attack the mendicant orders . It was due to the action of Alexander IV 's envoys, who were obliged to threaten the university authorities with excommunication, that the degree of doctor of theology was finally conceded to the Dominican Thomas Aquinas and the Franciscan Bonaventure (1257), who had previously been able to lecture only as licentiates. The Franciscan Gerard of Borgo San Donnino at this time issued

19435-574: The idea of poverty based on belief that Christ and the apostles owned nothing. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the church's right to have possessions. The Franciscan chapter held in Perugia in May 1322 declared on the contrary: "To say or assert that Christ, in showing the way of perfection, and the Apostles, in following that way and setting an example to others who wished to lead

19604-477: The largest contemporary male order), orders for nuns such as the Order of Saint Clare , and the Third Order of Saint Francis open to male and female members. They adhere to the teachings and spiritual disciplines of the founder and of his main associates and followers, such as Clare of Assisi , Anthony of Padua , and Elizabeth of Hungary . Several smaller Protestant Franciscan orders or other groups have been established since late 1800s as well, particularly in

19773-623: The largest in number in Poland because of the work and inspiration of Maximilian Kolbe . The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin ( OFM Cap. ) are the youngest branch of Franciscans, founded in 1525 by Matteo Serafini ( Matteo Bassi , Matteo da Bascio), an Observant friar, who felt himself called to an even stricter observance of Franciscan austerity. With the support of the Papal Court, the new branch received early recognition and grew fast, first in Italy and after 1574 all over Europe and throughout

19942-475: The lax General that in 1247, at a chapter held in Lyon, France—where Innocent IV was then residing—he was replaced by the strict Observantist John of Parma (1247–57) and the Order refused to implement any provisions of Innocent IV that were laxer than those of Gregory IX. Elias, who had been excommunicated and taken under the protection of Frederick II , was now forced to give up all hope of recovering his power in

20111-616: The little hood ( cappuciola ); the Neutri, a group of reformers originating about 1463 in Italy, who tried to take a middle ground between the Conventuals and Observantists, but refused to obey the heads of either, until they were compelled by the pope to affiliate with the regular Observantists, or with those of the Common Life; the Caperolani, a congregation founded about 1470 in North Italy by Peter Caperolo , but dissolved again on

20280-479: The majority religion of Bulgaria. Leo strongly condemned the action, and when Ferdinand went through with the conversion anyway, Leo excommunicated him. The United States frequently attracted his attention and admiration. He confirmed the decrees of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) and raised James Gibbons , the archbishop of that city, to the cardinalate in 1886. On 10 April 1887,

20449-403: The name "Leo" in memory of Pope Leo XII due to his admiration for the late pope's interest in education and his conciliatory attitude toward foreign governments. When asked what name he would take, the new pope responded: "As Leo XIII, in remembrance of Leo XII, whom I have always venerated". His election was formally announced to the people of Rome and the world at 1:15   pm. He retained

20618-532: The new complex known as the Primatial Abbey of Sant'Anselmo representing Benedictines "for businesses directly concerning the well-being of the whole order." This was, as many historians have noted, his primary responsibility. He would be elected for a twelve year term by the Benedictine abbots of the world and would have limited administrative or juridical control over individual monasteries or congregations, but would still serve to represent Benedictines to

20787-590: The new institution and whether to elect a " Repraesentans " of the Benedictine Order for a 12 year term who would also oversee the new Sant'Anselmo. The abbots and their representatives then met with the Pope Leo XIII on 2 May 1893 after which the Pope issued a brief on 12 July 1893 ( Summum Semper ) that outlined his clear vision for the Benedictines. Famously having remarked that the Benedictines were an " ordo sine ordine " (an order without order),

20956-500: The object of attacks in the media and at his residence. In 1848, revolutionary movements developed throughout Western Europe, including France, Germany and Italy. Austrian , French and Spanish troops reversed the revolutionary gains but at a price for Pecci and the Catholic Church, who could not regain their former popularity. Pecci called a provincial council in 1849 to reform the religious life in his dioceses in Spoleto and it

21125-461: The office of the "Abbot Primate" he was willing to compromise on this vision given the concerns of the Benedictine abbots about the historic autonomy of monasteries. As one historian noted, "Pope XIII acquiesced in the abbots' thwarting his original intentions to organize a more central authority for the 'Black Monks'." Thus, " Summum Semper " of 1893 crafted a careful balance in all these needs as noted by another historian: Everyone must be struck by

21294-535: The order. Members of the Order live according to a Rule composed by St Francis in 1221. The Rule was slightly modified through the centuries and was replaced at the turn of the 20th century by Pope Leo XIII , himself a member of the Order. A new and current Rule was approved by Pope Paul VI in 1978, and the Third Order was renamed the Secular Franciscan Order. It is an international organization with its own Minister General based in Rome. Within

21463-496: The papal court. Allegedly, Pecci had been a cardinal reserved " in pectore " by Gregory XVI in the consistory of 19 January 1846, with the pope's death just over four months later invalidating the appointment since his name was never actually revealed publicly. Pecci defended the papacy and its claims. When Italian authorities expropriated convents and monasteries of Catholic orders, turning them into administration or military buildings, Pecci protested but acted moderately. When

21632-478: The penitential procession presided over by the Pope on Ash Wednesday , and which ends at the basilica of Santa Sabina where the first stationary mass of Lent is celebrated. The Abbot Primate has appointed the Rev. Doroteo Toić, O.S.B. as the present Rector of the church. Pope Leo XIII Pope Leo XIII ( Italian : Leone XIII ; born Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci ; 2 March 1810 – 20 July 1903)

21801-401: The perfect life, possessed nothing either severally or in common, either by right of ownership and dominium or by personal right, we corporately and unanimously declare to be not heretical, but true and catholic." By the bull Ad conditorem canonum of 8 December 1322, John XXII, declaring it ridiculous to pretend that every scrap of food given to the friars and eaten by them belonged to

21970-513: The personal presidency of Gregory IX, Elias was deposed in favor of Albert of Pisa , the former provincial of England, a moderate Observantist. This chapter introduced General Statutes to govern the Order and devolved power from the Minister General to the Ministers Provincial sitting in chapter. The next two Ministers General, Haymo of Faversham (1240–44) and Crescentius of Jesi (1244–47), consolidated this greater democracy in

22139-475: The pope sent a high ranking representative to the coronation of his successor, Alexander III , who was grateful and asked for all religious forces to unify. He asked the pope to ensure that his bishops abstain from political agitation . Relations improved further when Pope Leo XIII, because of Italian considerations, distanced the Vatican from the Rome-Vienna-Berlin alliance, and helped to facilitate

22308-457: The pope, refused to accept ownership over the goods of the Franciscans in the future and granted them exemption from the rule that absolutely forbade ownership of anything even in common, thus forcing them to accept ownership. And, on 12 November 1323, he issued the short bull Quum inter nonnullos which declared "erroneous and heretical" the doctrine that Christ and his apostles had no possessions whatever. John XXII's actions thus demolished

22477-440: The prestige lost with the fall of the Papal States. He tried to reconcile the church with the working class, particularly by dealing with the social changes that were sweeping Europe. The new economic order had resulted in the growth of an impoverished working class who had increasing anticlerical and socialist sympathies. Leo helped reverse that trend. Although Leo XIII was no radical in either theology or politics, his papacy moved

22646-430: The principal towns of England. The controversy about how to follow the Gospel life of poverty, which extends through the first three centuries of Franciscan history, began in the lifetime of the founder. The ascetic brothers Matthew of Narni and Gregory of Naples, a nephew of Cardinal Ugolino , were the two vicars-general to whom Francis had entrusted the direction of the order during his absence. They carried through at

22815-715: The province of Syria was established, with Brother Elias as Minister. By 1229 the friars had a small house near the fifth station of the Via Dolorosa . In 1272 sultan Baibars allowed the Franciscans to settle in the Cenacle on Mount Zion . Later on, in 1309, they also settled in the Holy Sepulchre and in Bethlehem . In 1335 the king of Naples Robert of Anjou ( Italian : Roberto d'Angiò ) and his wife Sancha of Majorca ( Italian : Sancia di Maiorca ) bought

22984-466: The question of poverty . In his 14 August 1279 bull Exiit qui seminat , Pope Nicholas III had confirmed the arrangement already established by Pope Innocent IV , by which all property given to the Franciscans was vested in the Holy See , which granted the friars the mere use of it. The bull declared that renunciation of ownership of all things "both individually but also in common, for God's sake,

23153-412: The river Clareno in the march of Ancona by Angelo da Clareno (1337). Like several other smaller congregations, it was obliged in 1568 under Pope Pius V to unite with the general body of Observantists. As a separate congregation, this originated through the union of a number of houses which followed Olivi after 1308. It was limited to southwestern France and, its members being accused of the heresy of

23322-487: The royal family and used the location to visit neighboring Germany, where he was particularly interested in the architectural completion of the Cologne Cathedral . In 1844, upon his initiative, a Belgian College in Rome was opened; 102 years later, in 1946, the future Pope John Paul II would begin his Roman studies there. Pecci spent several weeks in England with Bishop Nicholas Wiseman , carefully reviewing

23491-493: The smallest Papal province, with a population of about 20,000. The main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity from widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or Camorra structures, which were often allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento and his troops captured others, who were either killed or imprisoned by him. With public order restored, he turned to

23660-474: The sparing use of meat and the consumption of eggs, milk and vegetables. His favourite poets were Virgil and Dante . Pope Leo XIII began his pontificate with a friendly letter to Tsar Alexander II in which he reminded the Russian monarch of the millions of Catholics living in his empire who would like to be good Russian subjects if their dignity were respected. After the assassination of Alexander II,

23829-478: The stigmata wound." A sermon Francis heard in 1209 on Matthew 10:9 made such an impression on him that he decided to devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty. Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance. He was soon joined by a prominent fellow townsman, Bernard of Quintavalle , who contributed all that he had to

23998-469: The stories that Pecci and Pius IX had a mutual animosity for each other and disagreed with each other in terms of policy; however, this purported animosity has never been proven. It was further alleged that by this stage Pecci desired a change of scenery from Perugia and hoped for either the bishopric of Albano or the position of datary of the Apostolic Dataria . It has also been said that Pecci

24167-441: The streets, while staying in church properties. Clare of Assisi , under Francis's guidance, founded the Poor Clares (Order of Saint Clare) of the Franciscans. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in the final revision of the Rule in 1223. The degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as

24336-439: The strongly Observantist general Michael of Cesena , ventured to dispute the pope's right so to deal with the provisions of his predecessor. Sixty-four of them were summoned to Avignon and the most obstinate delivered over to the Inquisition, four of them being burned (1318). Shortly before this all the separate houses of the Observantists had been suppressed. A few years later a new controversy, this time theoretical, broke out on

24505-462: The students. While archbishop, Pecci developed several activities in support of various Catholic charities . He founded homeless shelters for boys, girls and elderly women. Throughout his dioceses, he opened branches of a Bank, Monte di Pietà , which focused on low-income people and provided low-interest loans . He created soup kitchens , which were run by the Capuchins. Upon his elevation to

24674-486: The sudden death of King Victor Emmanuel II (9 January 1878) distracted the government's attention. In the conclave, the cardinals faced varied questions and discussed issues like church–state relations in Europe, specifically Italy; divisions in the church and the status of the First Vatican Council. It was also debated that the conclave be moved elsewhere, but Pecci decided otherwise in his capacity as

24843-604: The universities (in Paris , for example, where Alexander of Hales was teaching) continued to develop. Contributions toward the promotion of the Order's work, and especially the building of the Basilica in Assisi, came in abundantly. Funds could only be accepted on behalf of the friars for determined, imminent, real necessities that could not be provided for from begging. When in 1230, the General Chapter could not agree on

25012-416: The vagueness of all this, a vagueness strangely unlike the usual precision of Roman legislation--so unlike as to bear in on the mind the sense that it was intentional. And so it surely was. There can be little doubt that in 1887 Leo XIII contemplated a real unification of the Benedictines with a real general at the head. Though he abandoned such a project, he did not wholly divest himself of the idea of bringing

25181-602: The very few non-congregational monasteries), he does direct the work of Sant'Anselmo on the Aventine ( Italian : Sant'Anselmo all'Aventino ). This is the complex located on the Aventine Hill in Rome 's Ripa rione and overseen by the Benedictine Confederation in the person of the Abbot Primate and the Synod of Abbot Presidents. This complex is sometimes referred to as the " Primatial Abbey of Sant'Anselmo " because

25350-523: The way of a somewhat sophistical distinction between possession and usufruct. The bull was received respectfully by Bonagratia and the next two generals, Arlotto of Prato (1285–87) and Matthew of Aqua Sparta (1287–89); but the Spiritual party under the leadership of the Bonaventuran pupil and apocalyptic Pierre Jean Olivi regarded its provisions for the dependence of the friars upon the pope and

25519-471: The work, and by other companions, who are said to have reached the number of eleven within a year. The brothers lived in the deserted leper colony of Rivo Torto near Assisi ; but they spent much of their time traveling through the mountainous districts of Umbria , always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations. Their life was extremely ascetic, though such practices were apparently not prescribed by

25688-430: The world. The Capuchins eventually became a separate order in 1619. The name Capuchins refers to the particular shape of the long hood or capuce ; originally a popular nickname, it has become a part of the official name of the order. The order now exists in 106 countries all over the world, with around 10,500 brothers living in more than 1700 communities known as fraternities or friaries. The Poor Clares , officially

25857-567: The world. They follow several different observances and are organized into federations. The Poor Clares follow the Rule of St. Clare which was approved by Pope Innocent IV the day before Clare's death in 1253. The main branch of the Order ( OSC ) follows the observance of Pope Urban. Other branches established since that time, who operate under their own unique constitutions , are the Colettine Poor Clares ( PCC – founded 1410),

26026-473: The zealots in the order, who felt this was not in keeping with the founder's views upon the question of poverty. The earliest leader of the strict party was Brother Leo , a close companion of Francis during his last years and the author of the Speculum perfectionis , a strong polemic against the laxer party. Having protested against the collection of money for the erection of the basilica of San Francesco, it

26195-419: Was Leo who broke in pieces the marble box which Elias had set up for offertories for the completion of the basilica at Assisi . For this Elias had him scourged, and this outrage on St Francis's dearest disciple consolidated the opposition to Elias. Leo was the leader in the early stages of the struggle in the order for the maintenance of St Francis's ideas on strict poverty. At the chapter held in May 1227, Elias

26364-531: Was a force for social change. It was encouraged by Leo's support for social welfare legislation and the rights of working people. Leo's forward-looking approach encouraged Catholic Action in other European countries, where the social teachings of the church were incorporated into the agenda of Catholic parties, particularly the Christian democratic parties, which became an acceptable alternative to socialist parties. Leo's social teachings were reiterated throughout

26533-638: Was at least equal in numbers and activity to the followers of Elias. After an intense apostolic activity in Italy, in 1219 Francis went to Egypt with the Fifth Crusade to announce the Gospel to the Saracens . He met with the Sultan Malik al-Kamil , initiating a spirit of dialogue and understanding between Christianity and Islam . The Franciscan presence in the Holy Land started in 1217, when

26702-556: Was claimed that a bakery was selling bread below the prescribed pound weight, he personally went there, had all bread weighed and confiscated it if below legal weight. The confiscated bread was distributed to the poor. In 1843, Pecci, at only 33, was appointed Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium , a position that guaranteed the cardinal 's hat after completion of the tour. On 27 April 1843, Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci Archbishop and asked his Cardinal Secretary of State Lambruschini to consecrate him. Pecci developed excellent relations with

26871-487: Was fixed and irrevocable, John XXII issued the bull Quia quorundam on 10 November 1324 in which he declared that it cannot be inferred from the words of the 1279 bull that Christ and the apostles had nothing, adding: "Indeed, it can be inferred rather that the Gospel life lived by Christ and the Apostles did not exclude some possessions in common, since living 'without property' does not require that those living thus should have nothing in common." In 1328, Michael of Cesena

27040-419: Was granted the right to confirm the choice of a head for the Conventuals, who was known as "Master-General of the Friars Minor Conventual"—although this privilege never became practically operative. In about 1236 during the time of Elias of Cortona , Pope Gregory IX appointed the Franciscans, along with the Dominicans , as Inquisitors. The Franciscans had been involved in anti-heretical activities from

27209-512: Was head of the Catholic Church from 20 February 1878 until his death in July 1903. Living until the age of 93, he was the oldest pope whose age can be validated, and had the fourth-longest reign of any pope, behind those of Peter the Apostle , Pius IX (his immediate predecessor) and John Paul II . He is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his famous 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum , Pope Leo outlined

27378-425: Was in this council that the need for a Syllabus of Errors was discussed. He invested in enlarging the seminary for future priests and in hiring new and prominent professors, preferably Thomists . He called on his brother Giuseppe Pecci , a noted Thomist scholar, to resign his professorship in Rome and to teach in Perugia instead. His own residence was next to the seminary, which facilitated his daily contacts with

27547-448: Was intending at the Council of Lyon (1274–75) to force the mendicant orders to tolerate the possession of property, threatened both pope and council with the renunciation of allegiance. Attempts were made, however, to satisfy the reasonable demands of the Spiritual party, as in the bull Exiit qui seminat of Pope Nicholas III (1279), which pronounced the principle of complete poverty to be meritorious and holy, but interpreted it in

27716-429: Was rejected in spite of his prominence, and Giovanni Parenti , Minister Provincial of Spain, was elected Minister General of the order. In 1232 Elias succeeded him, and under him the Order significantly developed its ministries and presence in the towns. Many new houses were founded, especially in Italy, and in many of them special attention was paid to education. The somewhat earlier settlements of Franciscan teachers at

27885-415: Was reportedly in line to succeed Cardinal Alessandro Barnabò as the prefect for Propaganda Fide ; however, it was stymied by his opponent, Cardinal Antonelli. Pope Pius IX died on 7 February 1878, and during his closing years the liberal press had often insinuated that the Kingdom of Italy should take a hand in the conclave and occupy the Vatican . However, the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and

28054-423: Was secured in Rome and a new complex known as " Sant'Anselmo all'Aventino " was built for this new college. It was in the papal brief on 9 December 1892 that he called for all Benedictine abbots to gather in Rome for "the laying of the foundation stone of Sant'Anselmo" that was to occur on 19 April 1893. The subsequent meetings of these abbots and their representatives after that gathering centered on how to care for

28223-620: Was summoned to Avignon to explain the Order's intransigence in refusing the pope's orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria. Michael was imprisoned in Avignon, together with Francesco d'Ascoli, Bonagratia, and William of Ockham. In January of that year Louis of Bavaria entered Rome and had himself crowned emperor. Three months later he declared John XXII deposed and installed the Spiritual Franciscan Pietro Rainalducci as antipope . The Franciscan chapter that opened in Bologna on 28 May reelected Michael of Cesena, who two days before had escaped with his companions from Avignon. But in August Louis

28392-464: Was the first pope never to have held any control over the Papal States , which had been dissolved by 1870, since Stephen II in the 8th century. Similarly, many of his policies were oriented towards mitigating the loss of the Papal States in an attempt to overcome the loss of temporal power, but nonetheless continuing the Roman Question . After his death in 1903, he was buried in the Vatican Grottoes before his remains were later transferred in 1924 to

28561-415: Was the son of a rich cloth merchant, but gave up his wealth to pursue his faith more fully. He had cut all ties that remained with his family, and pursued a life living in solidarity with his fellow brothers in Christ. In other words, he abandoned his life among the wealthy and aristocratic classes (or Majori ) to live like the poor and peasants ( minori ). Francis adopted the simple tunic worn by peasants as

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