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208-870: The institutionalization of the Abolitionist Confederation occurred within a political and economic context marked by strong international pressure to end slavery in Brazil. Although the subject had been in vogue since the late 1860s, it was only in the 1880s that the Abolitionist Movement gained strength. At this time, there was an increase in the circulation of activists, rhetoric and strategies through new technologies such as steamships and telegraph technology, which made it possible to spread political debates and experiences on an international scale and pushed various activists from different countries to build alliances or sociability networks. As

416-410: A Contemporary architecture , it has a conical shape, with 96 meters of internal diameter and capacity to receive up to 20 thousand faithful. The splendor of the building, with straight and sober lines, is due to the changing stained glass windows carved on the walls up to the dome. Its design and execution was coordinated by Monsignor Ivo Antônio Calliari (1918–2005). Saint Sebastian is recognized as

624-486: A skin color and phenotype continuum from pálido ( branco ) or fair-skinned, through branco moreno or swarthy Caucasian, mestiço claro or lighter skinned multiracial, pardo (mixed race) to negro or black . Pardo , for example, in popular usage includes those who are caboclos ( mestizos ), mulatos ( mulattoes ), cafuzos ( zambos ), juçaras (archaic term for tri-racials ) and westernized Amerindians (which are called caboclos as well), being more of

832-551: A tropical savanna climate ( Aw ) that closely borders a tropical monsoon climate ( Am ) according to the Köppen climate classification , and is often characterized by long periods of heavy rain between December and March. The city experiences hot, humid summers, and warm, sunny winters. In inland areas of the city, temperatures above 40 °C (104 °F) are common during the summer, though rarely for long periods, while maximum temperatures above 27 °C (81 °F) can occur on

1040-758: A Southern Hemisphere city. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup , and the XV Pan American Games . The city will host the G20 summit in 2024 , and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2027 . [REDACTED] Portuguese Empire 1565–1815 [REDACTED] United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves 1815–1822 [REDACTED]   Empire of Brazil 1822–1889 [REDACTED] Republic of Brazil 1889–present The region of Rio

1248-517: A barrier to the humid wind that comes from the Atlantic. The city has had rare frosts in the past. Some areas within Rio de Janeiro state occasionally have falls of snow grains and ice pellets (popularly called granizo ) and hail . Drought is very rare, albeit bound to happen occasionally given the city's strongly seasonal tropical climate. The Brazilian drought of 2014–2015, most severe in

1456-528: A colonial capital until 1808, when the Portuguese royal family and most of the associated Lisbon nobles, fleeing from Napoleon 's invasion of Portugal, moved to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdom's capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, became the only European capital outside of Europe . As there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. In

1664-407: A conical shape, with an internal diameter of 96 meters and a capacity to hold up to 20,000 worshippers. The splendor of the building, with its straight and sober lines, is due to the changing stained glass windows carved into the walls up to the dome . Its design and execution were coordinated by Monsignor Ivo Antônio Calliari (1918–2005). Saint Sebastian is recognized as the patron saint of

1872-402: A decade, according to a survey by Evaristo de Moraes, the emancipation fund had succeeded in freeing only 1% of the slave population. Faced with the slow progress of the government's program for gradual emancipation, abolitionist associations created their own emancipation funds to finance a greater number of freedmen. According to Castilho and Cowling, the practice of granting letters of freedom

2080-555: A distilled spirit derived from sugarcane, and shells, for slaves. This comprised what is now known as the triangular trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas during the colonial period. Merchants during the sugar age were crucial to the economic development of the colony, the link between the sugar production areas, coastal Portuguese cities, and Europe. Merchants in the early came from many nations, including Germans, Flemings, and Italians, but Portuguese merchants came to dominate

2288-460: A few months before Cabral landed, Spanish navigator Vicente Yáñez Pinzón came to the northeastern coast of Brazil and deployed many armed men ashore with no means of communicating with the indigenous people. One of his ships and captains was captured by indigenous people and eight of his men were killed. Cabral no doubt learned from this to treat communication with the utmost priority. Cabral left two degredados (criminal exiles) in Brazil to learn

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2496-605: A football when she joined him. And shortly after her arrival, in September 1894, the first football match in Brazil took place in the field beside the textile factory. It was a five-a-side match between British workers, and took place six months before the first game organized by Charles Miller in São Paulo. However, the Bangu Football Club was not formally created until 1904. At the time Brazil's Old Republic

2704-523: A kind of parasitic economy where proximity to settled areas were usually prerequisites for their long-term success. Unlike the palenque in Spanish America or maroon settlements in the West Indies , Portuguese officials rebuked any kind of agreements to standardize the quilombos out of the fear of drawing even more fugitive slaves to their communities. The largest of the quilombos was

2912-547: A large black slave population working on sugar plantations and mines. The boom and bust of the economic cycles were linked to export products. Brazil's sugar age, with the development of plantation slavery, merchants serving as middle men between production sites, Brazilian ports, and Europe was undermined by the growth of the sugar industry in the Caribbean on islands that European powers seized from Spain. Gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through

3120-412: A large fleet led by Tomé de Sousa set sail to Brazil to establish a central government in the colony. Tomé de Sousa, the first Governor-General of Brazil, brought detailed instructions, prepared by the king's aides, about how to administer and foster the development of the colony. His first act was the foundation of the capital city, Salvador , in northeastern Brazil, in today's state of Bahia . The city

3328-419: A larger set of defenses against slave uprisings that had been orchestrated by cities and towns. At the same time, some Amerindians resisted the colonizers’ efforts to prevent uprisings by surreptitiously incorporating into their villages those who had escaped slavery. Many of the details surrounding the inner political and social structure of the quilombos remain a mystery, and the information available today

3536-465: A monthly basis. Along the coast, the breeze, blowing onshore and offshore, moderates the temperature. Because of its geographic situation, the city is often reached by cold fronts advancing from Antarctica , especially during autumn and winter, causing frequent weather changes. In summer there can be strong rains, which have, on some occasions, provoked catastrophic floods and landslides. The mountainous areas register greater rainfall since they constitute

3744-600: A nzumbi "was the priest responsible for the spiritual defense of the community." The Dutch and later the Portuguese attempted several times to conquer Palmares, until an army led by famed São Paulo-born Domingos Jorge Velho managed to destroy the great quilombo and kill Zumbi in 1695. Brazilian feature film director Carlos Diegues made a film about Palmares called simply Quilombo . Of the many quilombos that once existed in Brazil, some have survived to this day as isolated rural communities. Portuguese colonists sought to destroy these fugitive communities because they threatened

3952-439: A population of the order of 1.29 million inhabitants being released without treatment in streams or rivers. With regard to industrial pollution, highly toxic wastes, with high concentrations of heavy metals – mainly zinc and cadmium – have been dumped over the years by factories in the industrial districts of Santa Cruz , Itaguaí and Nova Iguaçu , constructed under the supervision of State policies. The Marapendi lagoon and

4160-535: A result, groups of people who shared the same interests developed, and over the years these associations began to work together to establish communication, resulting in the emergence of several national political associations. This model of properly structured collective action, known as associativism, was originally found in European countries such as England and France, and was used as a reference by Brazilian anti-slavery activists to build local activism in harmony with

4368-575: A result, temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F), that may happen about year-round but are much more common during the summer, often mean the actual "feels-like" temperature is over 50 °C (122 °F), when there is little wind and the relative humidity percentage is high. According to data from the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), since 1931, the absolute minimum temperature recorded in Rio de Janeiro

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4576-557: A rich and influential Catholic tradition. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro is the second largest archdiocese in Brazil after São Paulo . The Rio de Janeiro Cathedral was inaugurated in 1979, in the central region of the city. Its installations have a collection of great historical and religious value: the Archdiocesan Museum of Sacred Art and the Archdiocesan Archive. In

4784-530: A role in colonial Brazil. Their "importance in the colonial may be one explanation why the Inquisition was not permanently established in Brazil during the Iberian Union ." New Christians were well integrated into institutional life, serving in civil as well as ecclesiastical offices. The relative lack of persecution and abundance of opportunity allowed them to have a significant place in society. With

4992-419: A school in the poor suburb of Rio de Janeiro, the "pardos" there were found to be on average about 80% European, and the "whites" (who thought of themselves as "very mixed") were found to carry very little Amerindian and/or African admixtures. The results of the tests of genomic ancestry are quite different from the self made estimates of European ancestry. In general, the test results showed that European ancestry

5200-717: A sedentary farming lifestyle. The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives, but also with the hierarchy of the Catholic Church itself. Following the creation of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Salvador da Bahia by the Pope, Bishop Pero Fernandes Sardinha arrived in Bahia in 1552 and took issue with the Jesuit mission led by Manoel da Nóbrega. Sardinha opposed

5408-516: A skin color rather than a racial group in particular. Different ethnic groups contributed to the formation of the population of Rio de Janeiro. Before European colonization, there were at least seven different indigenous peoples speaking 20 languages in the region. A part of them joined the Portuguese and the other the French. Those who joined the French were then exterminated by the Portuguese, while

5616-585: A survey carried out in the Almanak Laemmert , Cláudia Regina Andrade dos Santos demonstrates the expansion of associative life in Rio de Janeiro during the 1880s. According to her, the increase in the number of these institutions was strongly connected to the intensification of political debates and the political activism of Brazil's popular abolitionist sectors. She also states that the National Abolitionist Movement changed

5824-509: A territory of 1,721 km . The Cathedral of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro , or Metropolitan Cathedral , was inaugurated in 1979 in the central region of the city. Its facilities house a collection of great historical and religious value: the Archdiocesan Museum of Sacred Art and the Archdiocesan Archive. The Banco da Providência and the Archdiocesan Caritas are also based there. In a contemporary architectural style, it has

6032-406: A threat to the established Portuguese colony and in 1560 the order was made to get rid of them. A years-long military aggression was then initiated by the new Governor General of Brazil Mem De Sa, and later continued by his nephew Estacio De Sa. On 20 January 1567, a final defeat was imposed on the French forces and they were decisively expelled from Brazil for good. The city of Rio de Janeiro proper

6240-637: Is 349.4 mm, recorded on February 26, 1971, at the former station in the Engenho de Dentro neighborhood. According to the 2010 IBGE Census , there were 5,940,224 people residing in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Since 1960, when it was surpassed by São Paulo , the city of Rio de Janeiro has been the second-most populous city in Brazil. The 2022 census revealed the following numbers: White Brazilian (45.4% or 2,821,619); Mixed (38.7% or 2,403,895); Black (15.6% or 968,428); Asian (10,514 or 0.2%); Indigenous (6,531 or 0.1%). The population of Rio de Janeiro

6448-515: Is about 6,000,000. The population of the greater metropolitan area is estimated at 11–13.5 million. Residents of the city are known as cariocas . The official song of Rio is " Cidade Maravilhosa ", by composer André Filho . The city has parks and ecological reserves such as the Tijuca National Park, the world's first urban forest and UNESCO Environmental Heritage and Biosphere Reserve; Pedra Branca State Park , which houses

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6656-404: Is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. The place where Álvares Cabral arrived is now known as Porto Seguro , in northeastern Brazil . Cabral was leading a large fleet of 13 ships and more than 1,000 men following Vasco da Gama 's way to India, around Africa. Cabral

6864-430: Is far more important than the students thought it would be. The "pardos" for example thought of themselves as 1 ⁄ 3 European, 1 ⁄ 3 African and 1 ⁄ 3 Amerindian before the tests, and yet their ancestry on average reached 80% European. Other studies showed similar results Religion in Rio de Janeiro is diverse, with Catholic Christianity being the majority religion. According to data from

7072-812: Is limited by the fact that it usually comes from colonial accounts of their destruction. More is known about the Quilombo dos Palmares because it was "the longest-lived and largest fugitive community" in Colonial Brazil. Like any polity, Palmares and other quilombos changed over time. Quilombos drew on both African and European influences, often emulating the realities of colonial society in Brazil. In Palmares, slavery, which also existed in Africa, continued. Quilombos , like plantations, were most likely composed of people from different African groups. Religious syncretism, combining African and Christian elements,

7280-683: Is one of the most visited cities in the Southern Hemisphere and is known for its natural settings, carnival , samba , bossa nova , and balneario beaches such as Barra da Tijuca , Copacabana , Ipanema , and Leblon . In addition to the beaches, landmarks include the giant statue of Christ the Redeemer atop Corcovado mountain, named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World ; Sugarloaf Mountain with its cable car ;

7488-405: Is still seen in many parts of the city (and many other parts of the state of Rio de Janeiro), including architecture and language . Most Brazilians with some cultural contact with Rio know how to easily differentiate between the local dialect, fluminense , and other Brazilian dialects. People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of the state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39.7% of

7696-526: The Sambódromo (Sambadrome), a permanent grandstand-lined parade avenue which is used during Carnival; and Maracanã Stadium , one of the world's largest football stadiums . Rio de Janeiro was the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics , making the city the first South American and Portuguese-speaking city to ever host the events, and the third time the Olympics were held in

7904-804: The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), in 2010 the population of Rio de Janeiro had 3,229,192 Roman Catholics (51.1%), 1,477,021 Protestants (23.4%), 372.851 Spiritists (5.9%), 37,974 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.6%), 75,075 Buddhists (0.2%), 52,213 Umbanda (0.8%), 21,800 Jews (0.3%), 25,743 Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church (0.4%), 16,776 new eastern religious (0.2%), 28,843 Candomblé (0.4%), 3,853 Mormons (<0.1%), 5,751 Eastern Orthodox Christians (<0.1%), 7,394 spiritualists (0.1%), 964 Muslims (<0.1%), 5,662 esoteric (<0.1%) and 802 Hindus (<0.1%). 858,704 had no religion (13.5%), and 113,530 followed other forms of Christianity (1.8%). Rio de Janeiro has had

8112-564: The Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence of the count John Maurice of Nassau as governor (1637–1644) in Recife (renamed Mauritstaad ). Nassau invited scientific commissions to research the local flora and fauna, resulting in added knowledge of the territory. Moreover, he set up a city project for Recife and Olinda, which was partially accomplished. Remnants survive into

8320-510: The Quilombo dos Palmares , located in today's Alagoas state, which grew to many thousands during the disruption of Portuguese rule with the Dutch incursion. Palmares was governed by leaders Ganga Zumba and his successor, Zumbi . The terminology for the settlements and leaders come directly from Angola, with quilombo, an Angolan word for military villages of diverse settlers, and the nganga

8528-483: The Rodrigo de Freitas Lagoon have suffered with the leniency of the authorities and the growth in the number of apartment buildings close by. The illegal discharge of sewage and the consequent deaths of algae diminished the oxygenation of the waters, causing fish mortality. There are, on the other hand, signs of decontamination in the lagoon made through a public-private partnership established in 2008 to ensure that

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8736-830: The Southeast Region and the worst in decades, affected the entire metropolitan region's water supply (a diversion from the Paraíba do Sul River to the Guandu River is a major source for the state's most populous mesoregion). There were plans to divert the Paraíba do Sul to the Sistema Cantareira (Cantareira system) during the water crisis of 2014 in order to help the critically drought-stricken Greater São Paulo area. However, availability of sufficient rainfall to supply tap water to both metropolitan areas in

8944-813: The Tijuca National Park (Parque Nacional da Tijuca), the largest city-surrounded urban forest and the second largest urban forest in the world, has been a National Park. The largest urban forest in the world is the Floresta da Pedra Branca (White Rock Forest), which is located in the West Zone of Rio de Janeiro. Due to the high concentration of industries in the metropolitan region, the city has faced serious problems of environmental pollution. The Guanabara Bay has lost mangrove areas and suffers from residues from domestic and industrial sewage, oils and heavy metals. Although its waters renew when they reach

9152-453: The Tropic of Capricorn where the shoreline is oriented east and west; the city thus faces largely south. It was founded at the entrance to an inlet, Guanabara Bay (Baía de Guanabara), which is marked by a point of land called Sugar Loaf (Pão de Açúcar) – a "calling card" of the city. The population of the city of Rio de Janeiro, occupying an area of 1,182.3 km (456.5 sq mi),

9360-546: The Tupi language was compiled by Joseph of Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines into communities of resettlement called aldeias , similar in intent to the reductions implemented by Francisco de Toledo in southern Peru during the 1560s. where the natives worked for the community and were evangelized. Founded in the aftermath of the campaign undertaken by Mem de Sá from 1557 to force

9568-658: The World Youth Day in 2013 , the second World Youth Day in South America and first in Brazil. In the sports field, Rio de Janeiro was the host of the 2007 Pan American Games and the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final . On 2 October 2009, the International Olympic Committee announced that Rio de Janeiro would host the 2016 Olympic Games and the 2016 Paralympic Games , beating competitors Chicago , Tokyo , and Madrid . The city became

9776-463: The aldeias by colonists eager to steal laborers for themselves thus causing natives to flee the settlements. The aldeia model would again be used, though also unsuccessfully, by the Governor of the captaincy of São Paulo, Luís António de Sousa Botelho Mourão  [ pt ] , in 1765, in order to encourage mestizos , natives, and mulattoes to abandon slash-and-burn agriculture and adopt

9984-660: The battleship Minas Geraes and threatened to fire on the city. Another military revolt occurred in 1922, the Copacabana Fort revolt , a march against the Old Republic's coronelism and café com leite politics . This revolt marked the beginning of Tenentism , a movement that resulted in the Brazilian Revolution of 1930 that started the Vargas Era . Until the early years of the 20th century,

10192-440: The 17th century, through publications from Portugal and other European countries. In Brazil, newspapers began to be produced in 1808 and were consolidated in 1821. During the 19th century, periodicals began to be published daily and consequently became an important source of information for Brazilian society. As a result, the Abolitionist Confederation used the press as an essential tool to build public opinion on slavery. Throughout

10400-485: The 1860s at his schools in Salvador and Rio de Janeiro, where anti-slavery speeches were made and students wrote and recited poems on the subject; one of whom was Castro Alves (1847–1871). During civic ceremonies at his abolitionist association Libertadora 7 de Setembro , which were the origin of the conferences-concerts of the 1880s, he received donations that allowed him to buy and distribute letters of freedom . In

10608-665: The 1870s, had contact with the anti-slavery conferences at the Theatro Variedades in Madrid, organized by the Spanish Abolitionist Society. Inspired by the actions of Spanish abolitionism, which made use of theaters in its propaganda, the Brazilian movement used this space not only as a meeting point to discuss its agendas, but also to provoke reflection in the audience. The first abolitionist show

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10816-444: The 1870s. The Abolitionist Confederation formulated several strategies to win the fight against slavery, and one of the greatest resources used by the abolitionists was rhetoric , whose practice was introduced by the country's intellectual and political tradition through Portuguese educational institutions. According to the author Júlio César de Souza Dória, rhetoric was the structure of the Brazilian linguistic and political context in

11024-500: The 1880s. The presence of rhetorical elements in parliamentary speeches, streets, conferences and newspaper articles that circulated in the Empire show that the adoption of this discursive practice served as a way of organizing ideas, with the purpose of convincing the public and opponents of the cause. However, after 1885, the Abolitionist Movement, dissatisfied with the slow pace of the project to gradually abolish slavery, rebelled against

11232-406: The 1980s, the discussion about abolition became intensified and the positions against slavery became increasingly clear. During this period, the press served as a means of propagandizing abolitionist ideas, especially during the 1880s, with abolitionists defending their conceptions in debates against reactionary and conservative subjects. Although there was a significant circulation of periodicals in

11440-461: The 19th century in Brazil, theaters were one of the main forms of entertainment and propagation of culture. Due to their popular reach among different classes, they became an important vehicle for disseminating the movement. According to Ricardo Tadeu Caires Silva, from 1850 onwards the theater began to receive a wider and more diverse audience, ceasing to be an exclusively elitist environment. Abolitionists such as Rebouças, who travelled around Europe in

11648-402: The 80s of the 19th century, characterized by the predominance of the Abolitionist Movement. The most radical confrontations between abolitionists and slaveholders took place during this period, mainly in 1885. In this context, the abolitionists used legal and extra-legal strategies to succeed in the end of slavery. In 1884, the movement became institutionalized and began to help the government with

11856-701: The Abolitionist Movement managed to convey the movement's cause and strategy, even if their actions were not very active. The second phase took place between 1872 and 1887. With the law in force, the departure of the Conservative Party from government and the arrival of the Liberals , there was a nationalization of mobilization and an intensification of abolitionist protests. Between 1884 and 1887, there were 896 pro-abolition mobilization events in Brazil, without support from other institutions, but also without state repression. The third and final phase covers

12064-440: The Abolitionist Movement, Castilho and Cowling claim that the Abolitionist Confederation and the Rio de Janeiro City Council collaborated in financing the purchase of freedoms. Finally, in the 1880s, the money from the emancipation funds was also used to finance two extralegal abolitionist practices: the harboring of enslaved people and the planning of escapes by captives. The Abolitionist Confederation sought to build alliances with

12272-439: The Abolitionist Movement, including Joaquim Nabuco, André Rebouças, Abílio Borges and Luiz Gama. The last three mentioned receive less prestige when the subject of abolition comes up, but their participation, even if independent, was fundamental to the development of political strategies in the Abolitionist Movement. Abolitionism had several promoters, both regional and national, including Luiz Gama, who, according to Angela Alonso,

12480-480: The Americas. For example, the Brazilian colony was at first thought of as a commercial asset that would facilitate trade between the Portuguese and India and not a place to be settled to develop a society. The social model of conquest in Brazil was one geared toward commerce and entrepreneurial ideals rather than conquest as was the case in the Spanish realm. As time progressed, the Portuguese crown found that having

12688-527: The Crown not having a strong administrative hold due to Brazil's reliance on its exportation economy. Pernambuco, the most successful captaincy, belonged to Duarte Coelho , who founded the city of Olinda in 1536. His captaincy prospered with engenhos , sugarcane mills, installed after 1542 producing sugar. Sugar was a very valuable good in Europe, and its production became the main Brazilian colonial product for

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12896-527: The Dutch controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe ( Dutch Brazil ), without, however, penetrating the interior. The large Dutch ships were unable to moor in the coastal inlets where lighter Portuguese shipping came and went. Ironically, the result of the Dutch capture of the sugar coast was a higher price of sugar in Amsterdam . During the Nieuw Holland episode, the colonists of

13104-406: The Empire's urban social stratum. With the end of the transatlantic slave trade and the rise of the interprovincial slave trade, the number of captives had become concentrated in areas of agricultural production and among wealthier families; civil servants, merchants and liberal professionals generally had few or no slaves. Abolitionists also included students, journalists, writers, artists, members of

13312-404: The Empire, the type of publication that provided the greatest number of debates on abolition was the newspaper. Through them, activists gave greater visibility to the Abolitionist Movement, reporting on the progress of the abolitionist cause in Brazil. After 1885, the indignation of those opposed to slavery was reflected in the countless debates in the newspapers. One of their most powerful arguments

13520-413: The Empire. It was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. At that time the number of slaves was drastically reduced and the city was developed, with modern drains, animal trams, train stations crossing the city, gas and electric lighting, telephone and telegraph wiring, water and river plumbing. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when

13728-468: The French were again expelled from São Luís by the Portuguese. Since the initial attempts to find gold and silver failed, the Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods that were to be exported to Europe. Tobacco and cotton and some other agricultural goods were produced, but sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century. The first sugarcane farms were established in

13936-625: The Iberian Union (1580–1640), many migrated to Spanish America. In 1580, a succession crisis led to the union of Portugal and Spain being ruled by the Habsburg king Philip II . The unification of the crowns of the two Iberian kingdoms, known as the Iberian Union, lasted until 1640 when the Portuguese revolted. During the union the institutions of both kingdoms remained separate. For Portuguese merchants, many of whom were Christian converts from Judaism ("New Christians") or their descendants,

14144-529: The Jesuit mission at São Vicente in late 1552 to return only at the conclusion of the Sardinha's tenure. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from slavery , but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labour and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and

14352-464: The Jesuits taking part in indigenous dances and playing indigenous instruments since he viewed these activities had little effect on conversion. The use of interpreters at confession by the Jesuits was also railed against by Sardinha who opposed the appropriation of indigenous culture for evangelization. Sardinha also challenged the Jesuit prohibition on waging war against and enslaving the indigenous population, eventually forcing Nóbrega to leave Bahia for

14560-723: The Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African people. The potential riches of tropical Brazil led the French, who did not recognize the Tordesillas Treaty that divided the world between the Spanish and the Portuguese, to attempt to colonize parts of Brazil. In 1555, the Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon founded a settlement within Guanabara Bay , in an island in front of today's Rio de Janeiro. The colony, named France Antarctique , led to conflict with Governor General Mem de Sá, who waged war against

14768-650: The Manifesto of the Abolitionist Confederation of Rio de Janeiro states that everyone should be free, affirming that equality and the right to freedom is everyone's right. In the early days of its formation, the Brazilian Abolitionist Movement interacted with international movements and was inspired by their forms of action. However, given the specificities of the Brazilian scenario, the actions could not simply be transposed to Brazilian militancy. The Anglo-American model of mobilization guided

14976-534: The Portuguese Crown's point of view, its realm was expanded with relatively little cost to itself. On the Atlantic islands of the Azores , Madeira , and São Tomé , the Portuguese began plantation production of sugarcane using forced labor, a precedent for Brazil's sugar production in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Portuguese discovery of Brazil was preceded by a series of treaties between

15184-434: The Portuguese crown from the high costs of colonization. The captaincies granted control over large areas of land and all that resided upon it. Furthermore, the splitting of land highlights the economic importance a large amount of land would have for red-dye producing trees and sugar plantations. Thus, between 1534 and 1536 king John III divided the land into 15 captaincy colonies, which were given to those who wanted and had

15392-423: The Portuguese expel the French from a colony they had established at present-day Rio de Janeiro . The first attempt to colonize Brazil followed the system of hereditary captaincies ( Capitanias Hereditárias ), which had previously been used successfully in the colonization of Madeira. These captaincies were granted by royal decree to private owners, namely to merchants, soldiers, sailors, and petty nobility, saving

15600-601: The Portuguese frequently relied on the help of Europeans who lived together with the indigenous people and knew their languages and culture. The most famous of these were João Ramalho , who lived among the Guaianaz tribe near today's São Paulo , and Diogo Álvares Correia, who acquired the name Caramuru , who lived among the Tupinambá natives near today's Salvador. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to

15808-502: The Portuguese monarchy beginning to move from a crusading and looting-centric attitude, to a trade-centric attitude when approaching new lands. The latter attitude required communication and cooperation with indigenous people, thus, interpreters. This informed Cabral's actions in Brazil. As Cabral realized that no one in his convoy spoke the language of the indigenous people in Brazil, he took every effort to avoid violence and conflict and used music and humor as forms of communication. Just

16016-519: The Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46.3% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20.4% of the population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30.8%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51.2% of

16224-419: The Portuguese. By 1580, as many as 40,000 natives could have been taken from the interior to toil as slaves on Brazil's interior, and this enslavement of indigenous people continued right throughout the colonial period. The period of sugar-based economy (1530 – c. 1700) is known as the sugar cycle in Brazil. The development of the sugar complex occurred over time, with a variety of models. The dependencies of

16432-607: The abolition of slavery. The confederation, as a strategy against a possible regression in the validity of Provincial Law No. 2,034 of October 19, 1883, published in the press and postponed the commemorations of the Abolition in Ceará to March 25. News of the state spread through the international press, and conferences and concerts were held to celebrate the achievement. Patrocínio and Nabuco organized events in Paris and London to publicize

16640-628: The actions of the Brazilian movement, but unlike the US, for example, which had the support of the Protestant Church and organized its militancy in Quaker associations, in Brazil, a Catholic country, the Church was one of the state institutions, as was slavery. This scenario was similar to that of the Spanish colonies, Puerto Rico and Cuba , which were also going through the abolition process in

16848-521: The army, commercial employees, printers, journeymen, among others. Women took part in activism through philanthropy, organizing events and fundraisers, helping their husbands, fathers and brothers, and taking part in artistic performances. They also founded abolitionist societies, including Ave Libertas , which was formed in Recife. Angela Alonso states that throughout the abolitionist campaign, women were part of six mixed societies and 21 exclusively female societies. In general terms, this diversity boosted

17056-516: The artistic repertoire of these events. The productions moved streetcar lines, which ran at special times to attend abolitionist events, and the small businesses around the theater on performance days. Commemorations and events that contributed to the liberation of slaves were brought to the theater, such as the Eusébio de Queiroz Law , the Free Womb Law and Abolition in Ceará. At the end of

17264-435: The capital of Brazil was officially moved to Brasília. The territory of the former Federal District became its own state, Guanabara, after the bay that borders it to the east, encompassing just the city of Rio de Janeiro. After the 1964 coup d'état that installed a military dictatorship , the city-state was the only state left in Brazil to oppose the military. Then, in 1975, a presidential decree known as "The Fusion" removed

17472-860: The capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. In 1775 all Brazilian States (Brasil, Maranhão and Grão-Pará) were unified into the Viceroyalty of Brazil , with Rio de Janeiro as capital, and the title of the king's representative was officially changed to that of Viceroy of Brazil. As in Portugal, each colonial village and city had a city council ( câmara municipal ), whose members were prominent figures of colonial society (land owners, merchants, slave traders). Colonial city councils were responsible for regulating commerce, public infrastructure, professional artisans, prisons etc. Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought

17680-482: The captaincy. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people. Between 1811 and 1831, 500,000 to a million slaves arrived in Rio de Janeiro through Valongo Wharf , which is now a World Heritage Site . The Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. When Prince Pedro proclaimed the independence of Brazil in 1822, he decided to keep Rio de Janeiro as the capital of his new empire while

17888-519: The city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rio's streetcar transit system after 1905. Botafogos natural environment, combined with the fame of the Copacabana Palace Hotel, the luxury hotel of the Americas in the 1930s, helped Rio to gain the reputation it still holds today as a beach party town. This reputation has been somewhat tarnished in recent years by favela violence resulting from

18096-409: The city was largely limited to the neighborhood now known as the historic city center (see below), on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. The city's center of gravity began to shift south and west to the so-called Zona Sul (South Zone) in the early part of the 20th century, when the first tunnel was built under the mountains between Botafogo and the neighborhood that is now known as Copacabana . Expansion of

18304-806: The city's patron saint , which is why it received the canonical name of "Saint Sebastian of Rio de Janeiro." Many Protestant creeds coexist in the city, Presbyterian , Congregational , Lutheran and Anglican Churches. In addition to evangelical churches such as the Baptist , Methodist , Seventh-day Adventist and Pentecostal churches, such as the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God , Assembly of God , Christian Congregation in Brazil and The Foursquare Church . Afro-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda and Candomblé find support in various social segments, although professed by less than 2% of

18512-607: The city's federative status and merged it with the State of Rio de Janeiro , with the city of Rio de Janeiro replacing Niterói as the state's capital, and establishing the Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Region . In 1992, Rio hosted the Earth Summit , a United Nations conference to fight environmental degradation . Twenty years later, in 2012, the city hosted another conference on sustainable development , named United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development . The city hosted

18720-400: The city, which is why it received the canonical name "São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro". Colonial Brazil Colonial Brazil ( Portuguese : Brasil Colonial ) comprises the period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese , until 1815, when Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in union with Portugal . During the 300 years of Brazilian colonial history, the main economic activities of

18928-523: The clubs from different provinces that belonged to the Confederation functioned as a single entity. In the 1880s, the abolitionists formed a considerably strong group, capable of opposing the slave-owning elite of the time. In this context, meetings, conferences and gatherings formed the essential gear that kept the confederation communicating and brought organization and success to the movement's actions. The Free Womb Law, enacted in 1871, established

19136-492: The coast of Africa on the way. They sought sources of gold, ivory, and African slaves, high value goods in the African trade. The Portuguese set up fortified trading feitorias (factories), whereby permanent, fairly small commercial settlements anchored trade in a region. The initial costs of setting up these commercial posts was borne by private investors, who in turn received hereditary titles and commercial advantages. From

19344-617: The coast, and type of vegetation or land use. During the winter, cold fronts and dawn/morning sea breezes bring mild temperatures; cold fronts, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (in the form of winds from the Amazon Forest ), the strongest sea-borne winds (often from an extratropical cyclone ) and summer evapotranspiration bring showers or storms. Thus the monsoon-like climate has dry and mild winters and springs, and very wet and warm summers and autumns. As

19552-472: The coast: they sacked Salvador in 1604, from which they removed large amounts of gold and silver before a joint Spanish-Portuguese fleet recaptured the town. The city was captured again by the Dutch in May 1624 before being surrendered to a Luso-Spanish armada 11 months later. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in commercial Recife and aristocratic Olinda. With the capture of Paraíba in 1635,

19760-455: The coastal native population and the declaration of king Sebastian I 's 1570 law which proclaimed the liberty of Brazilian natives, the enslavement of indigenous people increased after 1570. A new slave trade emerged where indigenous people were brought from the sertões or "inland wilderness frontiers" by mixed-race mameluco under the loophole in the 1570 law that they were captured in just wars against native groups who "customarily" attacked

19968-474: The colony in 1560. Estácio de Sá, nephew of the Governor, founded Rio de Janeiro in 1565 and managed to expel the last French settlers in 1567. Jesuit priests Manuel da Nóbrega and Joseph of Anchieta were instrumental in the Portuguese victory by pacifying the natives who supported the French. Another French colony, France Équinoxiale , was founded in 1612 in present-day São Luís , in the North of Brazil. In 1614

20176-423: The colony serve as a trading post was not ideal for regulating land claims in the Americas, so it decided that the best way to keep control of their land was to settle it. Thus, the land was divided into fifteen private, hereditary captaincies , the most successful of which being Pernambuco and São Vicente . Pernambuco succeeded by growing sugarcane. São Vicente prospered by enslaving indigenous native people from

20384-465: The country's major corporations, Petrobras and Vale , and Latin America's largest telemedia conglomerate, Grupo Globo . The home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17 percent of national scientific output according to 2005 data. Despite the high perception of crime, the city actually has a lower incidence of crime than most state capitals in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro

20592-527: The course of a few years and replace them with newly imported enslaved people. Areas where manioc , a subsistence crop, was cultivated also utilized high numbers of enslaved peoples. In these areas, 40 to 60 percent of the population was enslaved. These regions were characterized by fewer work demands and better living and working conditions for enslaved peoples as compared to labor conditions for enslaved populations in sugar regions. The Portuguese attempted to severely restrict colonial trade, meaning that Brazil

20800-433: The creation of a national emancipation fund, a legal instrument created with the aim of raising resources to buy letters of freedom. The Emancipation Fund was made up of taxes on the transfer of slave property, the proceeds of six annual lotteries and a tenth of those granted to run in the national capital, fines imposed for non-compliance with the law, donations, and part of the general, provincial and municipal budgets. Within

21008-464: The defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctique by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565. The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous people to Catholicism is linked to their capacity to understand the native culture, especially the language. The first grammar of

21216-409: The defense against pirates. Only São Paulo was an important inland city. Unlike the network of towns and cities that developed in most areas of Spanish America, the coastal cities and their hinterlands were oriented toward Portugal directly with little connection otherwise. With sugar as the major export commodity in the early period and the necessity to process cane into exportable refined sugar on-site,

21424-527: The dignity of a kingdom, within the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarves . Rio remained as the capital of the pluricontinental monarchy until 1822, when the Brazilian War of Independence began. This is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonizing country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro subsequently served as the capital of

21632-459: The early 1880s, as local emancipation funds became increasingly important, local governments set up their own funds as a way of taking control of the emancipation process. This was the case with the legislative assembly of Pernambuco in 1883, and the city councils of Recife and Rio de Janeiro in 1884. In the latter, the Golden Book was created with the aim of freeing all the enslaved people in

21840-412: The economic and social order of the slave regime in Brazil. There was a constant fear among colonists that enslaved peoples would revolt and resist slavery. Two settler objectives were to discourage enslaved peoples from trying to escape and to close down their options for escape. Strategies used by Portuguese colonists to prevent enslaved people from fleeing included apprehending escapees before they had

22048-407: The end of the 19th century, especially between 1888 and 1889. In addition, the forms and rules of abolitionist demonstrations to bring about popular mobilization were also discussed. The educator Abílio Cesar Borges (1824–1891) pioneered the "Boomerang Method", which sought to put pressure on Brazilian institutions through international allies. He was also a pioneer in organizing civic ceremonies in

22256-460: The end of the colonial era. Brazilian cities were largely port cities and the colonial administrative capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro in response to the rise and fall of export products' importance. Unlike Spanish America, which fragmented into many republics upon independence , Brazil remained a single administrative unit under a monarch as the Empire of Brazil , giving rise to

22464-697: The enslaved population was around 1,500 in the 1880s. Teodureto Carlos de Faria Souta, who took office in March 1884 and was also a supporter of abolitionism, followed in Dias' footsteps and approved the Amazonas Abolition Bill, Provincial Law No. 632, in April of the same year. The commemorations of the liberation in Amazonas were scheduled for May 24, 1884, and ceremonies were held following a model that

22672-409: The enslaved themselves at abolitionist society meetings. Unlike the national emancipation fund, the local emancipation funds were mainly raised through donations, concerts and fairs, with a broad donor base. Abolitionist associations used public ceremonies and concert-conferences to distribute letters of freedom as a way of advertising and encouraging donations to their respective emancipation funds. In

22880-737: The enslavement of indigenous people continued. The Portuguese had established several commercial facilities in West Africa , where West African slaves were bought from African slave traders. The enslaved West Africans were then sent via slave ships to Brazil, chained and in crowded conditions. Enslaved West Africans were more desirable and practical because many came from sedentary, agriculture-based societies and did not require as much training in how to farm as did members of Amerindian societies, which tended to not be primarily agricultural. Africans were also less vulnerable to disease than Amerindians were. The importation of enslaved Africans into Brazil

23088-657: The entire population and forced entry into houses to kill mosquitoes and rats. The people of the city rebelled against Cruz's policy, in what would be known as the Vaccine Revolt . In 1910, Rio saw the Revolt of the Lash , where Afro-Brazilian crew members in the Brazilian Navy mutinied against the heavy use of corporal punishment , which was similar to the punishment slaves received. The mutineers took control of

23296-415: The event, which combined an artistic performance with a political speech, the audience threw camellias , the flower symbol of the movement, onto the stage. Through art, Brazilian abolitionists raised public awareness of the problem of slavery. The concert-conferences were decisive for the growth of public acceptance of abolition and for joining the mobilization. The National Abolitionist Movement transformed

23504-536: The farm included a casa-grande (big house) where the owner of the farm lived with his family, and the senzala , where the slaves were kept. A notable early study of this complex is by Brazilian sociologist Gilberto Freyre . This arrangement was depicted in engravings and paintings by Frans Post as a feature of an apparently harmonious society. Initially, the Portuguese relied on enslaved Amerindians to work on sugarcane harvesting and processing, but they soon began importing enslaved Africans from West Africa, though

23712-430: The feat and move foreign opinion in favour of the actions taken in Ceará. The actions of the raftsmen, who refused to transport enslaved people, were also important. This accelerated the discussion of liberation and inspired abolitionists. Among the raftsmen, their leader, Francisco José do Nascimento , is a symbol of resistance and affirms the contribution of black people to the abolition process in Brazil. In Amazonas ,

23920-408: The field of politics through associations, creating clubs, societies, guilds and schools of different ideological, social and political hues. As a result, in 1883, the Abolitionist Movement succeeded in bringing together various organizations in a common program, known as Abolitionist Confederation. The Brazilian Abolitionist Confederation was created at 6 p.m. on May 9, 1883, at a meeting organized at

24128-403: The field of politics through associations, creating clubs, societies, guilds and schools of different ideological, social and political hues. In 1883, the movement managed to bring together various organizations in a common program, known as Abolitionist Confederation. The members of the Abolitionist Confederation were in constant communication through meetings, letters and telegrams. In this way,

24336-467: The fight for abolition with direct contact with slaves, while the more radicals fought for complete social reform in Brazil. In 1887, the Abolitionist Movement became unanimous, and according to Maria Helena Machado, after this period the abolitionists began to penetrate the senzalas , organizing mass escapes and the abandonment of the farms. From then on, the protest of the enslaved gained content and effective political direction. After total abolition in

24544-618: The first favelas . Inspired by the city of Paris , Passos built the Municipal Theatre , the National Museum of Fine Arts and the National Library in the city's center; brought electric power to Rio and created larger avenues to adapt the city to automobiles . Passos also named Oswaldo Cruz as Director General of Public Health. Cruz's plans to clean the city of diseases included compulsory vaccination of

24752-554: The first South American city to host the event and the second Latin American city (after Mexico City in 1968 ) to host the Games. Since the early 2010s, Rio de Janeiro has been inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its arts, urban culture and designed landscapes set around a natural environment. Rio de Janeiro is near the west end of a strip (from Cabo Frio to just east of Ilha Grande ) of Brazil's Atlantic coast close to

24960-421: The first and only channels of interaction between all of the world's continents, thus beginning the process of globalization . In addition to the imperial and economic undertaking of discovery and colonization of lands distant from Europe, these years were filled with pronounced advancements in cartography , shipbuilding and navigational instruments , of which the Portuguese explorers took advantage. In 1494,

25168-743: The first decade, several educational establishments were created, such as the Military Academy, the Royal School of Sciences, Arts and Crafts and the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts , as well as the National Library of Brazil – with the largest collection in Latin America – and The Botanical Garden . The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro , came into circulation during this period. When Brazil

25376-470: The first group of Jesuits to the colony. More than any other religious order, the Jesuits represented the spiritual side of the enterprise and were destined to play a central role in the colonial history of Brazil. The spreading of the Catholic faith was an important justification for the Portuguese conquests, and the Jesuits were officially supported by the king, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all

25584-673: The future is merely speculative. Roughly in the same suburbs ( Nova Iguaçu and surrounding areas, including parts of Campo Grande and Bangu) that correspond to the location of the March 2012, February–March 2013 and January 2015 pseudo-hail ( granizo ) falls, there was a tornado -like phenomenon in January 2011, for the first time in the region's recorded history, causing structural damage and long-lasting blackouts , but no fatalities. The World Meteorological Organization has advised that Brazil, especially its southeastern region, must be prepared for increasingly severe weather occurrences in

25792-524: The gradual emancipation project. The opposition to the union between the government and the movement was considerable, and the group formed by slave owners showed its strength in the elections. In 1885, the final period of confrontational abolitionist mobilization occurred. After being expelled from the public arena, the movement began to break the law with direct actions. The periodical press has been present in Portuguese America regularly since

26000-500: The greatest virtues of the Brazilian Abolitionist Movement is its diversity – differences in social position, status, region of origin, career, access to the political system among abolitionists – which, despite generating internal conflicts, enables the process of forming new alliances. A significant part of the activists had a lifestyle unrelated to slavery; they were part of the middle and lower sectors of

26208-562: The headquarters of Gazeta da Tarde in Rio de Janeiro and was responsible for coordinating several anti-slavery associations and developing the Abolitionist Movement among the provinces of the Empire. It was also able to nationalize the campaign with its way of easily reproducing events and decisions, using public sessions, conferences and festivals. Its activities in newspapers, which published articles, pamphlets, essays, artistic productions, translations and manifestos, were responsible for enabling contact at national level between those who led

26416-714: The highest point of Rio de Janeiro, the peak of Pedra Branca; the Quinta da Boa Vista complex; the Botanical Garden ; Rio's Zoo; Parque Lage ; and the Passeio Público , the first public park in the Americas . In addition the Flamengo Park is the largest landfill in the city, extending from the center to the south zone, and containing museums and monuments, in addition to much vegetation. Since 1961,

26624-430: The independent monarchy, the Empire of Brazil , until 1889, and then the capital of a republican Brazil until 1960 when the capital was transferred to Brasília . Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, and 30th-largest in the world in 2008. This is estimated at R$ 343 billion. In the city are the headquarters of Brazilian oil, mining, and telecommunications companies, including two of

26832-481: The indigenous people and severe disputes with other colonizers and the bishop. Wars against the natives around Salvador consumed much of his government. The fact that the first bishop of Brazil, Pero Fernandes Sardinha , was killed and eaten by the Caeté natives after a shipwreck in 1556 illustrates how strained the situation was between the Portuguese and many indigenous communities. The third Governor-General of Brazil

27040-411: The inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267,664 people in 1890. As a result of the influx of immigrants to Brazil from the late 19th to the early 20th century, also found in Rio de Janeiro and its metropolitan area are communities of Levantine Arabs who are mostly Christian or Irreligious , Spaniards , Italians , Germans , Japanese , According to an autosomal DNA study from 2009, conducted on

27248-480: The invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. In 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island , was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon . Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony. Eventually this French settlement became too much of

27456-611: The kings of Portugal and Castile , following Portuguese sailings down the coast of Africa to India and the voyages to the Caribbean of the Genoese mariner sailing for Castile, Christopher Columbus . The most decisive of these treaties was the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, which created the Tordesillas Meridian, dividing the world between the two kingdoms. All land discovered or to be discovered east of that meridian

27664-497: The lagoon waters will eventually be suitable for bathing. The decontamination actions involve the transfer of sludge to large craters present in the lagoon itself, and the creation of a new direct and underground connection with the sea, which will contribute to increase the daily water exchange between the two environments. However, during the Olympics the lagoon hosted the rowing competitions and there were numerous concerns about potential infection resulting from human sewage. Rio has

27872-412: The land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and fight the French. In 1530, an expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to patrol the entire coast, expel the French, and create the first colonial villages like São Vicente on the coast. Because Brazil

28080-452: The land. The other thirteen captaincies failed, leading the king to make colonization a royal effort rather than a private one. In 1549, Tomé de Sousa sailed to Brazil to establish a central government. He brought along Jesuit priests, who set up missions , forbidding natives to express their own cultures, and converting many to Catholicism. The Jesuits' work to dominate the indigenous native’s cultural expression and way of living helped

28288-502: The largest country in Latin America. Just as Spanish and Roman Catholicism were a core source of cohesion among Spain's vast and multi-ethnic territories, Brazilian society was united by the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism. As the only Lusophone polity in the Americas, the Portuguese language was - and remains - particularly important to Brazilian identity. Portugal pioneered the European charting of sea routes that were

28496-642: The late 17th century, still during the Sugar Era, the Bandeirantes discovered gold and diamonds in the neighboring captaincy of Minas Gerais , thus Rio de Janeiro became a much more practical port for exporting wealth (gold, precious stones, besides the sugar) than Salvador, Bahia , much farther northeast. On 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The city remained primarily

28704-515: The literate activists wrote their oratory in the newspapers and followed the heated debates in the news, the illiterate abolitionists consumed the famous cartoons with an anti-slavery message in Angelo Agostini 's Revista Ilustrada . In addition to abolition, other issues were discussed in the press. One of the recurring subjects concerned the political structure of the Empire, where republicans and monarchists confronted their conceptions at

28912-541: The longest of any country in the Americas. African slaves had a higher monetary value than indigenous slaves largely because many of them came from agricultural societies and thus were already familiar with the work needed to maintain the profitable sugar plantations of Brazil. Also, African slaves were already immune to several of the Old World diseases that killed many indigenous people and were less likely to flee, as compared to indigenous slaves, since their place of origin

29120-401: The main abolitionist newspapers of the time was Gazeta da Tarde , founded in Rio de Janeiro in 1880 by Ferreira de Menezes and taken over in 1881 by José do Patrocínio, whose pages served as a platform for the enthusiastic speeches of several abolitionists. In addition to newspapers, abolitionists also spread their precepts through meetings (public and private), conferences and kermesses. While

29328-402: The means to administer and explore them. The captains were granted ample powers to administer and profit from their possessions. From the 15 original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente, prospered. The failure of most captaincies was related to the resistance of the indigenous native people, shipwrecks and internal disputes between the colonizers. . Failure can also be attributed to

29536-411: The mid-16th century and were the key for the success of the captaincies of São Vicente and Pernambuco, leading sugarcane plantations to quickly spread to other coastal areas in colonial Brazil. Initially, the Portuguese attempted to utilize Indian slaves for sugar cultivation, but shifted to the use of black African slave labor. While the availability of Amerindians did decrease due to epidemics afflicting

29744-406: The militancy of the provinces. Inspired by the "free territories" strategy of US abolitionism, the Confederation spearheaded a campaign to abolish slavery in Brazilian territories. According to Angela Alonso, the liberation campaign was only successful in territories where it was possible to combine the low political organization of local slavery, a facilitating provincial executive and a movement that

29952-422: The modern era. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch finally withdrew in 1654; the Portuguese paid off a war debt in payments of salt. Few Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remain, but Albert Eckhout 's paintings of amerindians and slaves, as well as his still lifes are important works of baroque art. Unlike neighboring Spanish America, Brazil was a slave society from its outset. The African slave trade

30160-637: The monarchy was replaced by a republic. On 6 February 1889 the Bangu Textile Factory was founded, with the name of Industrial Progress Company of Brazil (Companhia Progresso Industrial do Brasil). The factory was officially opened on 8 March 1893, in a complex with varying architectural styles like Italianate , Neo-Gothic and a tower in Mansard Roof style. After the opening in 1893, workers from Great Britain arrived in Bangu to work in

30368-418: The most common forms of resistance involved engaging in sluggishness and sabotage . Other ways these enslaved peoples resisted was by exacting violence upon themselves and their babies, often to the point of death, and by seeking revenge against their masters. Another type of resistance to slavery was flight and, with the dense vegetation of the tropics, runaway slaves fled in numbers and for slave owners, this

30576-515: The municipality. According to a survey by Castilho and Cowling (2013), between 1885 and 1887, the Golden Book freed 797 enslaved people in nine emancipation ceremonies. These ceremonies were held in the Paço Municipal on the birthdays of members of the royal family and the independence movement, which promoted not only the ideal of abolition, but also the royal family and the Rio de Janeiro City Council. Despite dividing opinions among members of

30784-471: The narcotics trade and militias . Plans for moving the nation's capital city from Rio de Janeiro to the center of Brazil had been occasionally discussed, and when Juscelino Kubitschek was elected president in 1955, it was partially on the strength of promises to build a new capital. Though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília and a new Federal District built, at great cost, by 1960. On 21 April of that year,

30992-533: The native languages and to serve as interpreters in the future. The practice of leaving degredados in new lands to serve as interpreters came straight from the colonization of the islands off of the West African coast 80 years before Cabral landed in Brazil. After Cabral's voyage, the Portuguese focused their efforts on their possessions in Africa and India and showed little interest in Brazil. Between 1500 and 1530, relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to

31200-465: The near future, since events such as the catastrophic January 2011 Rio de Janeiro floods and mudslides are not an isolated phenomenon. In early May 2013, winds registering above 90 km/h (56 mph) caused blackouts in 15 neighborhoods of the city and three surrounding municipalities, and killed one person. Rio saw similarly high winds (about 100 km/h (62 mph)) in January 2015. Temperature also varies according to elevation, distance from

31408-457: The neighboring Spanish possessions , which had several viceroyalties with jurisdiction initially over New Spain (Mexico) and Peru , and in the eighteenth century expanded with the viceroyalties of the Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay and Bolivia) and New Granada (Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador and Guyana), the colony of Brazil was settled mainly in the coastal area by the Portuguese and

31616-422: The new land to chart the coast and to obtain brazilwood. In Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable red dye to luxury textiles. To extract brazilwood from the tropical rainforest, the Portuguese and other Europeans relied on the work of the natives, who initially worked in exchange for European goods like mirrors, scissors, knives and axes. In this early stage of the colonization of Brazil, and also later,

31824-517: The new province and their new condition as a free person. Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro ( Portuguese: [ˈʁi.u d(ʒi) ʒɐˈne(j)ɾu] ), or simply Rio , is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro . It is the second-most-populous city in Brazil (after São Paulo ) and the sixth-most-populous city in the Americas. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese , the city

32032-419: The next 150 years. The captaincy of São Vicente, owned by Martim Afonso de Sousa, also produced sugar but its main economic activity was capturing indigenous native people to trade them as slaves. With the failure of most captaincies and the menacing presence of French ships along the Brazilian coast, the government of king John III decided to turn the colonization of Brazil back into a royal enterprise. In 1549,

32240-401: The number of people in the movement and made it possible to divide up activities, which proved to be unique but complementary styles of activism. The Manifesto of the Abolitionist Confederation of Rio de Janeiro was written at a meeting of the Confederation on August 11, 1883, and signed by a group of abolitionist organizations. One of the manifesto's main points was that abolitionist propaganda

32448-477: The opportunity to band together. Slave catchers mounted expeditions with the intent to destroy fugitive communities. These expeditions destroyed mocambos and either killed or re-enslaved inhabitants These expeditions were conducted by soldiers and mercenaries, many of whom were supported by local people or by the government's military. As a result, many fugitive communities were heavily fortified. Amerindians were sometimes utilized as ‘slave catchers’ or as part of

32656-443: The other part was assimilated. Rio de Janeiro is home to the largest Portuguese population outside of Lisbon in Portugal. After independence from Portugal, Rio de Janeiro became a destination for hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Portugal, mainly in the early 20th century. The immigrants were mostly poor peasants who subsequently found prosperity in Rio as city workers and small traders. The Portuguese cultural influence

32864-616: The place was enriched with sugar cane agriculture in the Campos region and, especially, with the new coffee cultivation in the Paraíba Valley . In order to separate the province from the capital of the Empire, the city was converted in Neutral Municipality in 1834, passing the province of Rio de Janeiro to have Niterói as capital. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of

33072-625: The population, many Cariocas simultaneously observe those practices with Roman Catholicism. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro , the Metropolitan See of its respective Ecclesiastical Province , belongs to the Regional Episcopal Council Leste I of the National Conference of Bishops of Brazil (CNBB) (headquartered in Rio until 1977). Founded in 1676, it covers

33280-429: The presentation of poetry, orchestras, conferences and the delivery of letters of freedom, which took place at the end of each event. Poetry and plays served to disseminate anti-slavery morals and sensitize the urban population to the abolitionist cause. Works such as the theatrical adaptation of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe , and the poem Navio Negreiro by Castro Alves, were several times represented in

33488-512: The province of Ceará and implemented the emancipation fund in the province, as stipulated by the 1871 law. Then, on October 3, the Provincial Assembly approved the bill that increased the tax for every slave in the province and the tax for every slave that was exported; what was left of the enslaved was sold before the law came into force, as a profit strategy for the owners. From 1883 onwards, municipalities in Ceará gradually achieved

33696-657: The provinces and the others who took part in the movement. Before its creation, there were two other institutions fighting against slavery in Brazil: the Sociedade Brasileira Contra a Escravidão (English: Brazilian Society Against Slavery) and the Associação Central Emancipadora (English: Central Emancipation Association). Initially, the societies that formed the Abolitionist Confederation were mostly student unions, but there

33904-502: The provinces of Ceará and Amazonas, interprovincial escapes became a strong strategy of abolitionists to free captives, like a Brazilian adaptation of the US Underground Railroads . At this time, the activists paid for several expenses, such as the accommodation of the enslaved person in the province where they were held captive, their escape to one of the provinces that had decreed abolition, the start of their stay in

34112-427: The repercussions of the criticism of slavery widely disseminated by the Empire through the abolitionists, led to a feeling of repulsion in some people about the servile system. These struggles, however, were able to bring the slave system to its degradation by the end of the 19th century. Before 1887, there were several abolitionist groups, some more conservative and others more radical. The conservatives did not support

34320-526: The sea, the bay is the final receiver of all the tributaries generated along its banks and in the basins of the many rivers and streams that flow into it. The levels of particulate matter in the air are twice as high as that recommended by the World Health Organization , in part because of the large numbers of vehicles in circulation. The waters of Sepetiba Bay are slowly following the path traced by Guanabara Bay, with sewage generated by

34528-693: The sites of institutional life of church and state, as well as urban groups of merchants. Unlike many areas of Spanish America, there was no dense, sedentary indigenous population which had already created settlements, but cities and towns in Brazil were similar to those in Spanish Colonial Venezuela . Port cities allowed Portuguese trade goods to enter, including African slaves, and export goods of sugar and later gold and coffee to be exported to Portugal and beyond. Coastal cities of Olinda (founded 1537), Salvador (1549), Santos (1545), Vitória (1551), and Rio de Janeiro (1565) were also vital in

34736-406: The state, changing its peaceful orientation. According to Angela Alonso, there were three phases of the Brazilian Abolitionist Movement. The first took place between 1868 and 1871, when the first cycle of anti-slavery mobilization emerged in the Brazilian public arena, led by members of the imperial elite. The state's reaction to this early mobilization was tolerant, and these pioneering activists of

34944-576: The states of Brasil , with Salvador as capital, and Maranhão , with its capital in São Luís . The state of Maranhão was still further divided in 1737 into the Maranhão e Piauí and Grão-Pará e Rio Negro , with its capital in Belém do Pará . Each state had its own Governor. After 1640, the governors of Brazil coming from the high nobility started to use the title of Vice-rei ( Viceroy ). In 1763

35152-430: The subjectivities found in Brazil's national context and political tradition. An adaptation made in Brazil can be noted regarding the meeting places, since in other countries, the groups met in churches, and in Brazil, most abolitionists gathered in theaters, which brought some characteristics to the movement, such as involvement with the arts, the dramatization of slavery and the theatricalization of politics. According to

35360-432: The submission of Salvadoran natives, the aldeias marked the transition of Jesuit policy from conversion by persuasion alone to the acceptance of force as a means of organizing natives with a means to then evangelizing them. Nevertheless, these aldeias were unattractive to the natives due to the introduction of epidemic diseases to the communities, the forced settlement of aldeia natives elsewhere to labor, and raiding of

35568-403: The sugar engenhos had resident artisans and barber-surgeons, and functioned in some ways as small towns. Also unlike most Spanish settlements, Brazilian cities and towns did not have a uniform lay-out of central plaza and a check board pattern of streets, often because the topography defeated such an orderly layout. Converted Jews, so-called New Christians , many of whom were merchants, played

35776-535: The support needed to Christianise the indigenous people. The first Jesuits, guided by Father Manuel da Nóbrega and including prominent figures like Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes and later Joseph of Anchieta , established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga , the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo . Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in

35984-400: The territory were based first on brazilwood extraction (brazilwood cycle), which gave the territory its name; sugar production ( sugar cycle ); and finally on gold and diamond mining ( gold cycle ). Slaves, especially those brought from Africa , provided most of the workforce of the Brazilian export economy after a brief initial period of Indigenous slavery to cut brazilwood. In contrast to

36192-427: The text presents a history of slavery that began in the colonial period , showing the background to the enslavement of indigenous people and Africans in Brazil. The document also reports on other aspects of the history of the advances and setbacks made in the Empire's path towards abolition. In the manifesto, freedom must be an essential and decisive principle in the organization of a society. In this political dispute,

36400-409: The text, slave ownership is criminal, given that human freedom is fundamental for the three natural laws of social progress to operate: solidarity, competition and mutuality. According to the manifesto, the city of Rio de Janeiro is the space that provides the debate over abolition, by uniting and opposing those interested in the issue from an economic, institutional and political perspective. At first,

36608-495: The textile factory. The old farms became worker villages with red-bricks houses, and a neo-gothic church was created, which still exists as the Saint Sebastian and Saint Cecilia Parish Church. Street cinemas and cultural buildings also appeared. In May 1894, Thomas Donohoe , a British worker from Busby , Scotland, arrived in Bangu. Donohoe was amazed to discover that there was absolutely no knowledge of football among Brazilians. So he wrote to his wife, Elizabeth, asking her to bring

36816-622: The trade in Brazil. During the union of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns (1580–1640), to be active in Spanish America as well, especially trading African slaves. Even though Brazilian sugar was reputed as being of high quality, the industry faced a crisis during the 17th and 18th centuries when the Dutch and the French started producing sugar in the Antilles , located much closer to Europe, causing sugar prices to fall. Brazil had coastal cities and towns, which have been considered far less important than colonial settlements in Spanish America, but like Spanish America, urban settlements were important as

37024-404: The trees. Portuguese seafarers in the early fifteenth century, as an extension of the Portuguese Reconquista , began to expand from a small area of the Iberian Peninsula, to seizing the Muslim fortress of Ceuta in North Africa. Its maritime exploration then proceeded down the coast of West Africa and across the Indian Ocean to the south Asian subcontinent, as well as the Atlantic islands off

37232-418: The two kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula divided the New World between them in the Treaty of Tordesillas , and in 1500 navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed in what is now Brazil and laid claim to it in the name of king Manuel I of Portugal . The Portuguese identified in Portuguese brazilwood as a valuable red dye source and an exploitable product, and attempted to force indigenous groups in Brazil to cut

37440-432: The union of crowns presented commercial opportunities in the slave trade to Spanish America. The Seventeen Provinces obtained independence from Spain in 1581, leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil. Since the Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production in the Brazilian Northeast and were important as shippers of sugar, a conflict began with Dutch privateers plundering

37648-459: The victims of this raiding were not white sugar planters but blacks who sold produce grown on their own plots. Other accounts document the actions of members of quilombos to successfully prospect gold and diamonds and to engage in trade with white-controlled cities. While the reasons for fugitive settlement are varied, quilombos were rarely wholly self-sufficient and although inhabitants may have engaged in agricultural pursuits, they depended on

37856-461: Was Mem de Sá (1557–1573). He was an efficient administrator who managed to defeat the indigenous people and, with the help of the Jesuits, expel the French ( Huguenots and some previous Catholic settlers) from their colony of France Antarctique . As part of this process, his nephew, Estácio de Sá , founded the city of Rio de Janeiro there in 1565. The huge size of Brazil led to the colony being divided in two after 1621 when king Philip II created

38064-514: Was 53.2% female and 46.8% male . The black community was formed by residents whose ancestors had been brought as slaves, mostly from Angola and Mozambique , as well by people of Angolan, Mozambican and West African descent who moved to Rio from other parts of Brazil. Nearly half of the city's population is by phenotype mixed or black. White in Brazil is defined more by having a European-looking phenotype rather than ancestry, and two full siblings can be of different "racial" categories in

38272-428: Was 6.4 °C on August 18, 1933, at the meteorological station in the Bangu neighborhood (deactivated in March 2004). This same station, located in the city's hottest neighborhood, recorded a maximum temperature of 43.1 °C on January 14, 1984, which held the record for the highest temperature in the city until December 26, 2012, when 43.2 °C was recorded at the Santa Cruz station. The record for rainfall within 24 hours

38480-414: Was able to safely enter and leave Brazil in ten days, despite having no means of communication with the indigenous people there, due to the experience Portuguese explorers, such as Gama, had been amassing over the past few decades in interacting with foreign peoples. The Portuguese colonization, around 80 years earlier, of islands off West Africa such as São Tomé and Príncipe , were the first examples of

38688-431: Was already widespread among the provinces, like the banquet offered by the Abolitionist Confederation on August 19, 1884, to commemorate the liberation of the state. The ceremony was attended by the president of Amazonas and Confederation leaders such as João Clapp, Rebouças, Patrocínio and Nabuco. The social struggles against slavery that took place in the 1980s led Brazil to a climate of constant conflict which, along with

38896-446: Was also a social variety, which included associations of printers, commercial employees and former slaves. Most of the organizations were located in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro , Pernambuco , Ceará , Rio Grande do Sul and Espírito Santo , but as time went by, they became more widespread in the territory. There were several historical figures among the anti-slavery groups that joined the Confederation who stood out for their work in

39104-658: Was an "endemic problem." The realities of being on a frontier that was policed in less than optimal ways fostered the successful escapes of enslaved people. Since the early 17th century there are indications of runaway slaves organizing themselves into settlements in the Brazilian hinterland. These settlements, called mocambos and quilombos , were usually small and relatively close to sugar fields, and attracted not only African slaves but also people of indigenous origin. Quilombos were often viewed by Portuguese colonists as "parasitic," relying upon theft of livestock and crops, "extortion, and sporadic raiding" for sustenance. Often,

39312-415: Was an item of dispute for more than two and a half centuries but clearly established the Portuguese in America. It was replaced by the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, and both reflect the present extent of Brazil's coastline. On 22 April 1500, during the reign of king Manuel I , a fleet led by navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed in Brazil and took possession of the land in the name of the king. Although it

39520-427: Was built on a slope by a bay ( All Saints Bay ) and was divided into an upper administrative area and a lower commercial area with a harbour. Tomé de Sousa also visited the captaincies to repair the villages and reorganise their economies. In 1551, the Diocese of São Salvador da Bahia was established in the colony, with its seat in Salvador. The second Governor General, Duarte da Costa (1553–1557), faced conflicts with

39728-400: Was crucial to the development of the Abolitionist Movement in the 1880s. While criticizing the inefficiency of the national emancipation fund, they used local emancipation funds to mobilize popular opinion. Abolitionists publicized the donations they received and the names of the donors in newspapers, and also invited enslaved people to submit petitions for manumission, which were usually made by

39936-438: Was elevated to Kingdom in 1815, it became the capital of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves until the return of the Portuguese Royal Family to Lisbon in 1821, but remained as capital of the Kingdom of Brazil . From the colonial period until the first independent era, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was a large influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro: in 1819, there were 145,000 slaves in

40144-408: Was established, the city lacked urban planning and sanitation , which helped spread several diseases, such as yellow fever , dysentery , variola , tuberculosis and even black death . Pereira Passos , who was named mayor in 1902, imposed reforms to modernize the city, demolishing the cortiços where most of the poor population lived. These people then moved to live in the city's hills, creating

40352-514: Was founded on 1 March 1565 by the Portuguese, led by Estácio de Sá , including Antônio de Mariz  [ pt ] . It was named São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro , in honor of St. Sebastian, the saint who was the namesake and patron of the Portuguese then-monarch Sebastião . Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several mostly French pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc and René Duguay-Trouin . In

40560-416: Was heavily influenced by the rise of sugar and gold industries in the colony; from 1600 until 1650, sugar accounted for 95% of Brazil's exports. Slave labor demands varied based on region and on the type of harvest crop. In the Bahia region, where sugar was the main crop, conditions for enslaved peoples were extremely harsh. It was often cheaper for slaveowners to literally work enslaved peoples to death over

40768-409: Was inhabited by the Tupi , Puri , Botocudo and Maxakalí peoples. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502 (hence Rio de Janeiro, "January River"), during a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos , captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabral 's fleet, or under Gonçalo Coelho . Allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as an observer at

40976-399: Was inherent to the economic and social structure of the colony. Years before the North American slave trade got underway, more slaves had been brought to Brazil than would ever reach the Thirteen Colonies . It can be estimated that around 35% of all Africans captured in the Atlantic slave trade were sent to Brazil. The slave trade in Brazil would continue for nearly two hundred years and last

41184-436: Was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro , a domain of the Portuguese Empire . In 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil , a state of the Portuguese Empire . In 1808, when the Portuguese Royal Court moved to Brazil , Rio de Janeiro became the seat of the court of Queen Maria I of Portugal . She subsequently, under the leadership of her son the prince regent John VI of Portugal , raised Brazil to

41392-418: Was not a sentimental anarchist yearning or question, nor was it philosophical, but rather a presentation of the rights contained in parliamentary treaties. Within constitutional limits, abolitionist propaganda had the right to ask to be heard by the people's representatives. The intention of the document is to ensure that all the provinces and people of the Empire listen to what is being said, because according to

41600-408: Was not home to larger civilizations like the Aztec and the Inca in Mexico and Peru, the Portuguese could not place themselves on an established social structure. This, coupled with the fact that tangible material wealth was not found until the 18th century, made the relationship between the Portuguese and the Brazilian colony very different from the relationship of the Spanish to their possessions in

41808-419: Was only allowed to export and import goods from Portugal and other Portuguese colonies. Brazil exported sugar, tobacco, cotton and native products and imported from Portugal wine , olive oil , textiles and luxury goods – the latter imported by Portugal from other European countries. Africa played an essential role as the supplier of slaves, and Brazilian slave traders in Africa frequently exchanged cachaça ,

42016-415: Was organized by Vicente de Souza in 1879 at the São Luís Theatre. According to Angela Alonso, national mobilization increased after the abolition in Ceará in 1884, with a series of public actions by the Abolitionist Movement. The theater shows promoted by the abolitionists brought a wider audience into contact with the movement's ideas than other activities. The program had a diverse repertoire, including

42224-436: Was prevalent. The Bahian quilombo of Buraco de Tatu is described as a "well-organized" village in which people probably practiced monogamy and lived on rectangular-shaped houses that made up neat rows, emulating a plantation senzala . Quilombos were often well fortified, with swampy dikes and false roads leading to "covered traps" and "sharpened stakes," like those used in Africa. The gender imbalance among African slaves

42432-493: Was so inaccessible. However, many African slaves did in fact flee and created their own communities of runaway slaves called quilombos , which often became established political and economic entities. Work on the sugarcane plantations in Northeast Brazil and other areas relied heavily on slave labor , mostly of west African origin. Tijmen vd P. Had a immense role in slave oppression and torture of escaped africans These enslaved people worked to resist slavery in many ways. Some of

42640-414: Was structured and connected to the court. From this combination, abolition was celebrated in Ceará on March 25, 1884, and in Amazonas on July 10 of the same year. In the first half of the 1880s, Ceará and Rio de Janeiro were the main centers of activism, with 24 and 21 new abolitionist associations formed there respectively. In 1883, Sátiro de Oliveira Dias, a supporter of abolitionism, became president of

42848-419: Was that slavery was the social backwardness of the country; this claim had a considerable impact on the public sphere, which formed its opinion on the cause. Even in the newspapers, the abolitionists constantly affirmed their actions against slavery, such as theatrical performances promoted to raise awareness of the cause, conferences and meetings and the collection of donations for local emancipation funds. One of

43056-470: Was the person behind the articulation of judicial activism; Abílio Borges , who united national and international mobilization; José do Patrocínio, who coordinated the excellent strategies in the public arena; and André Rebouças, the most important articulator of the group, since he was an aristocrat and the son of a politician, which allowed him to circulate in public spaces, do business with employers and get close to students and theater professionals. One of

43264-421: Was to be the property of Portugal, and everything to the west of it went to Spain. The Tordesillas Meridian divided South America into two parts, leaving a large chunk of land to be exploited by the Spaniards. The Treaty of Tordesillas has been called the earliest document in Brazilian history, since it determined that part of South America would be settled by Portugal instead of Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas

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