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153-552: At the time of Dahlan's death in 1923, the organization reported a membership of 2,622 men and 724 women, mostly residents of Yogyakarta. Numbers grew steadily — 10,000 in 1928, 17,000 in 1929, and 24,000 in 1931. By the 1930s, moreover, it had begun to establish branches beyond Java , the main center of population, throughout Indonesia, and today it is said to be the second largest Islamic organization in Indonesia (behind Nahdlatul Ulama ) with 29 million members in 2008. The membership

306-721: A Proto-Austronesian root word, meaning "home". The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemy 's Geographia composed around 150 CE in the Roman Empire . Iabadiu is said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicates Java and seems to be derived from the Sanskrit name Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa). The annual news of Songshu and Liangshu (5th century CE) referred to Java as 闍婆 ( She-pó or She-bó ), He-ling (640–818), then called it She-po again until

459-602: A Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration. Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands like Banda , rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence. During the Napoleonic wars in Europe, the Netherlands fell to France , as did its colony in

612-415: A classroom or consulted by judges. A mabsut , which usually provided a commentary on a mukhtasar and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions. The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical relevance. At

765-451: A combined population of 156.4 million according to the official estimates as at mid 2023 (including Madura's 4.06 million). At nearly 1,185 people per km in 2023, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par with Bangladesh . Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around

918-490: A common sight. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average. The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities. Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving

1071-565: A culture and language distinct from the surrounding Sundanese and Javanese . The Javanese prose text Tantu Pagelaran ( c.  15th century ) explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature. Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the central part of Java or Yogyakarta is the Javanese people heartland and the north coast of the pasisir region, the Sunda lands ( Sundanese : ᮒᮒᮁ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ , Tatar Sunda ) in

1224-401: A governmental organization long before the story: "Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak." The Greek geographer Ptolemy called the island Iabadius or Sabadius ( Ancient Greek : Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου ). Ptolemy said that the name meant the "Island of Barley" and produced

1377-457: A jurist's mentality in finding a solution to a legal question in contrast with taqlid ( conformity to precedent ijtihad). According to theory, ijtihad requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, religious texts, and principles of jurisprudence ( usul al-fiqh ), and is not employed where authentic and trusted texts ( Qur'an and hadith ) are considered unambiguous with regard to

1530-402: A local master and discuss religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as

1683-656: A lot of grain and gold, adding that its metropolis was Argyre (Ἀργυρῆ) meaning silver in Greek. According to Chinese record Míng Shǐ , the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began. The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in

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1836-463: A middle way between the two attitudes such as Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari in theology (syncretists). In the classical age of Islam, there were violent conflicts between rationalists (aqliyyun; al-muʿtazila , kalamiyya ) and traditionalist (naqliyyun, literalists, Ahl al-Hadith ) groups and sects regarding the Quran and hadith or the place of reason in understanding the Quran and hadith, as can be seen in

1989-598: A model ( sunnah ) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of hadith . These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists Abu Hanifa , Malik ibn Anas , al-Shafi'i , and Ahmad ibn Hanbal , who are viewed as the founders of the Hanafi , Maliki , Shafiʿi , and Hanbali legal schools ( madhāhib ) of Sunni jurisprudence. Modern historians have presented alternative theories of

2142-617: A number of motives behind the establishment of this movement. Among the important ones are the backwardness of Muslim society and the penetration of Christianity. Ahmad Dahlan, much influenced by Egyptian reformist Muhammad Abduh , considered modernization and purification of religion from syncretic practices were very vital in reforming this religion. Therefore, since its beginning Muhammadiyah has been very concerned with maintaining tawhid and refining monotheism in society. From 1913 to 1918, Muhammadiyah established five Islamic Schools. In 1919 an Islamic high school, Hooge School Muhammadiyah

2295-416: A place and He is everywhere." Judgment that concerns individuals is personal and, for example, in an Islamic Qisas or compensation decisions, jurist must take into account "personal labels" such as the gender , freedom , religious and social status such as mu'min , kafir , musta'min , dhimmi , apostate , etc. Similar distinctions also apply to witnessing practices, which have a fundamental value in

2448-503: A process known as ijtihad (lit. mental effort). Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law, rituals and social dealings ; subsections family law , relationships (commercial, political / administrative ) and criminal law , in a wide range of topics. Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as legal norms, assigning actions to one of five categories : mandatory , recommended , neutral , abhorred , and prohibited . Over time with

2601-632: A result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include Ken Arok and Ken Dedes , the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of Ramayana and Mahabharata . Pramoedya Ananta Toer is a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java, and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends. Sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah , Shari'a , Shariah or Syariah ( Arabic : شريعة , lit.   'path (to water)')

2754-617: A rich biodiversity, where numbers of endemic species of flora and fauna flourished; such as the Javan rhinoceros , Javan banteng , Javan warty pig , Javan hawk-eagle , Javan peafowl , Javan silvery gibbon , Javan lutung , Java mouse-deer , Javan rusa , and Javan leopard . With over 450 bird species and 37 endemic species, Java is a birdwatcher's paradise. There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java. There are also several endemic amphibian species in Java , including 5 species of tree frogs . Since ancient times, people have opened

2907-399: A rule , there was a hierarchy and power ranking among the sources of Sharia; for example, a subcategory or an auxiliary source will not be able to eliminate a provision clearly stated in the main source or prohibit a practice that was not prohibited though it was known and practiced during the prophetic period. If we look at an example such as the abolition of the validity of Mut'a marriage ,

3060-543: A sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book" ( kitab ). The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work. Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law , which combines several traditional categories. Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as hudud . Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply. Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to

3213-657: A source of law in place of qiyas and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the imams . Islamic scholar Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE) lists the four basic sources of Islamic law, agreed upon by all Sunni Muslims : "the [well-known] sources of legislation in Islam are four: the Qur'an , the Sunnah , the consensus of the ummah and ijtihad undertaken by competent jurists" While traditional understanding strongly denies that Quran may have changed ( Al Hejr :9),

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3366-683: A treasurer with some deputies. The Muhammadiyah organisation has a number of universities which are spread out in several provinces of Indonesia, such as: Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia . It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 156.4 million people, Java is the world's most populous island , home to approximately 56% of

3519-405: A version of lex talionis that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime ( qisas ), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation ( diya ) or pardon the perpetrator instead; only diya is imposed for non-intentional harm. Other criminal cases belong to the category of taʿzīr , where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form

3672-515: Is Zabaj (Arabic: الزابج, Indonesian : Sabak), 400 farsakh in length, identified as Java. When John of Marignolli returned from China to Avignon , he stayed at the Kingdom of Saba for a few months, which he said had many elephants and was led by a queen ; Saba may be his interpretation of She-bó. Afanasij Nikitin , a merchant from Tver (in Russia), traveled to India in 1466 and described

3825-509: Is "specific to" a person, group, institution, event, situation, belief and practice in different areas of life, and usually includes the approval/disapproval of a judgment, is called fatwa . Tazir penalties , which are outside the Qisas and Hudud laws, have not been codified, and their discretion and implementation are under the initiative and authority of the judge or political authority. Mustafa Öztürk points out some another developments in

3978-542: Is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging 34 °C (93 °F) during the day in the dry season . The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler. The wet season begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February. West Java

4131-509: Is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam , particularly the Qur'an and hadith . In Islamic terminology sharīʿah refers to immutable, intangible divine law ; contrary to fiqh , which refers to its interpretations by Islamic scholars . Sharia, or fiqh as traditionally known, has always been used alongside customary law from

4284-410: Is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action. Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court. Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the afterlife, while neutral actions entail no judgment from God. Jurists disagree on whether the term ḥalāl covers

4437-593: Is about 1,000 km (620 mi) long and up to 210 km (130 mi) wide. The island's longest river is the 600 km long Solo River . The river rises from its source in central Java at the Lawu volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city of Surabaya . Other major rivers are Brantas , Citarum , Cimanuk and Serayu . The average temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F); average humidity

4590-468: Is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains 38 mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. There are 112 volcanoes in all, 35 of which are active. The highest volcano in Java is Mount Semeru , 3,676 metres (12,060 ft). The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia is Mount Merapi , 2,930 metres (9,610 ft). In total, Java has more than 150 mountains. Java's mountains and highlands split

4743-454: Is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty. Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the Javanese and Sundanese . A third group

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4896-463: Is contrasted with traditional practices where shariah law is invested in religious schools by ulema . The main focus of the Muhammadiyah movement is to heighten people's sense of moral responsibility, purifying their faith to true Islam. Theologically, Muhammadiyyah adheres to doctrines of Salafiyya ; calling for directly returning to the Qur'an and Sunnah and the understanding of

5049-401: Is insufficient to distinguish right from wrong , and rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus ( ijmaʿ ) and analogical reasoning ( qiyas ). It therefore studies

5202-514: Is largely left to the judge's discretion. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia. The two major genres of furūʿ literature are the mukhtasar (concise summary of law) and the mabsut (extensive commentary). Mukhtasars were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in

5355-598: Is largely urban and middle class in composition. Although Muhammadiyah leaders and members are often actively involved in shaping the politics in Indonesia , Muhammadiyah is not a political party. It has devoted itself to social and educational activities. On November 18, 1912, Ahmad Dahlan— a court official of the kraton of the Yogyakarta Sultanate and an educated Muslim scholar from Mecca —established Muhammadiyah in Yogyakarta. There were

5508-419: Is often stated today that Sharia provides many rights to slaves and aims to eradicate slavery over time. However, the widespread use of slavery in the Islamic world continued until the last century, and jurists had no serious objections to the castration of slaves and the unrestricted sexual use of female slaves, with a few exceptions in traditional islamic jurisprudence. A special religious decision, which

5661-433: Is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, slave versus slave, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well." Modern historians generally adopt intermediate positions regarding origins, suggesting that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by

5814-567: Is the Madurese , who inhabit the island of Madura off the northeast coast of Java, and have immigrated to East Java in large numbers since the 18th century. The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively. The fourth group is the Betawi people that speak a dialect of Malay , they are the descendants of

5967-523: Is the first of Four Doors and the lowest level on the path to God in Sufism and in branches of Islam that are influenced by Sufism, such as Ismailism and Alawites . It is necessary to reach from Sharia to Tariqa , from there to Ma'rifa and finally to haqiqa . In each of these gates, there are 10 levels that the dervish must pass through. Jan Michiel Otto summarizes the evolutionary stages of understanding by distinguishing four meanings conveyed by

6120-507: Is touched upon in the Quran 4:24 , and not prohibited (Sunnis translate the words used in the relevant verse with terms used to describe the ordinary marriage event) according to Sunnis is banned by Muhammad towards the end of his lifetime, and according to Shiites , by Omar , "according to his own opinion" and reliying on power. The Shiite sect did not accept the jurisprudence of Omar, whose political and religious authority they rejected from

6273-461: Is traditionally divided into ʿibādāt (rituals or acts of worship) and muʿāmalāt (social relations). Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters", called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries. Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects. For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics. Juristic works were arranged as

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6426-566: Is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the Middle East to designate a prophetic religion in its totality. For example, sharīʿat Mūsā means law or religion of Moses and sharīʿatu-nā can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse, šarīʿah refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply "justice," and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to Sharia. Sharia

6579-436: Is wetter than East Java , and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The Parahyangan highlands of West Java receive over 4,000 millimetres (160 in) annually, while the north coast of East Java receives 900 millimetres (35 in) annually. Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. The natural environment of Java is tropical rainforest , with ecosystems ranging from coastal mangrove forest on

6732-567: The jáwa-wut plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names. There are other possible sources: the word jaú and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant". And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous. "Yavadvipa" is mentioned in India 's earliest epic, the Ramayana . Sugriva ,

6885-544: The Denisovans (a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago. A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring were unviable or the hybrid lineages have since died out. Judging by

7038-804: The East Indies . During the short-lived Daendels administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of the Great Post Road was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning from Anyer in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion. In 1811, Java was captured by the British , becoming a possession of the British Empire , and Sir Stamford Raffles

7191-520: The Hanafi , Maliki , Shafi'i and Hanbali madhhabs. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of

7344-458: The Hebrew term Halakhah ["The Way to Go"]), or "path to the water hole" and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment. In the Quran, šarīʿah and its cognate širʿah occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path". The word šarīʿah was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during

7497-855: The Indonesian population . Indonesia's capital city, Jakarta , is on Java's northwestern coast. Many of the best known events in Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies . Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight UNESCO world heritage sites are located in Java: Ujung Kulon National Park , Borobudur Temple , Prambanan Temple , and Sangiran Early Man Site . Java

7650-426: The Islamic creed , leading changes in ahkam such as determining the conditions of takfir according to theologians ; First Muslims believed that God lived in the sky as Ahmad Ibn Hanbal says: "Whoever says that Allah is everywhere is a heretic , an infidel, should be invited to repent, but if he does not, be killed." This understanding changes later and gives way to the understanding that "God cannot be assigned

7803-578: The Mihna example. Although the rationalists initially seemed to gain the upper hand in this conflict, with the rise of literalism, the Mutazila sank into history and literalism continued to live by gaining supporters. In this context, the formulation of the Sunni view can be summarized as follows; Human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity. However, use of reason alone

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7956-543: The Ottoman Empire , and is from the Turkish şer'(i) . According to the traditionalist ( Atharī ) Muslim view, the major precepts of Sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet Muhammad without "historical development" and the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence ( fiqh ) also goes back to the lifetime of Muhammad. In this view, his companions and followers took what he did and approved of as

8109-463: The Qur'an , sunnah (or authentic ahadith ), ijma (lit. consensus) (may be understood as ijma al-ummah ( Arabic : إجماع الأمة ) – a whole Islamic community consensus, or ijma al-aimmah ( Arabic : إجماع الائـمـة ) – a consensus by religious authorities ), and analogical reasoning . Four legal schools of Sunni Islam — Hanafi , Maliki , Shafiʽi and Hanbali — developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using

8262-543: The Thousand Islands (8.7 km ) – with a combined population of roughly 90,000. Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during

8415-572: The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), where they began mentioning 爪哇 ( Zhao-Wa or Chao-Wa ). According to Ma Huan 's book (the Yingya Shenlan ), the Chinese called Java Chao-Wa, and the island was called She-po in the past. Sulaiman al-Tajir al-Sirafi mentioned two notable islands which separated Arabia and China : One is the 800 farsakh long Al-Rami, which is identified as Sumatra, and the other

8568-609: The 1840s through to the Japanese occupation in the 1940s. However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly in Cirebon and then Central Java , as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice. Indonesian nationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, and the struggle to secure the country's independence following World War II

8721-791: The 7th centuries, while the Heling kingdom sent embassies to China starting in 640. However, the first major principality was the Mataram Kingdom that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu god Shiva , and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau . Around the 8th century, the Sailendra dynasty rose in Kedu Plain and become

8874-596: The Bengawan Solo River at that time may have been different from what it is today, due to geological factors such as sedimentation, erosion, and changes in sea level over time. Currently, the estuary of the Bengawan Solo is in the Java Sea, but in prehistoric times, the river flow and estuary location may have changed. Geological and paleogeographic studies are often used to understand these changes. The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed

9027-599: The Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia . Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of

9180-625: The Dutch in the 17th century. Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with a treaty between the Sunda kingdom and the Portuguese in Malacca . After its failure, the Portuguese presence was confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands. In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia. By the end of the 18th century

9333-555: The Imams of the Salaf (early generations), including the eponyms of the four Sunni Madh'habs (legal schools). It advocates for a purification of faith from various local customs which they consider to be superstitious, heretical and forms of shirk (polytheism). Muhammadiyya directly traces its scholarly heritage to the teachings of Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. 1935 C.E / 1354 A.H), Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1792 / 1206 A.H), and

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9486-423: The Indonesian government ran transmigration programs aimed at resettling the population of Java on other less populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrived settlers . Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline. Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis,

9639-403: The Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama . Though Java is increasingly becoming more modern and urban, only 75% of the island has electricity. Villages and their rice paddies are still

9792-633: The Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word Torah in the 10th-century Arabic translation of the Torah by Saʿadya Gaon . A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers. The Arabic expression Sharīʿat Allāh ( شريعة الله ' God's Law ' ) is a common translation for תורת אלוהים ( ' God's Law ' in Hebrew) and νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ ( ' God's Law ' in Greek in

9945-417: The Muslim public that the so-called "gate of ijtihad " was closed at the start of the classical era. Starting from the 18th century, Islamic reformers began calling for abandonment of taqlid and emphasis on ijtihad , which they saw as a return to Islamic origins. The advocacy of ijtihad has been particularly associated with Islamic Modernism and Salafiyya movements. Among contemporary Muslims in

10098-517: The New Testament [Rom. 7: 22]). In Muslim literature, šarīʿah designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to fiqh , which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof. In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for Sharia was sheri . It, along with the French variant chéri , was used during the time of

10251-408: The Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. In addition, in religious literature, wajib is widely used for all kinds of religious requirements, without expressing any fiqh definition. As seen above and in many other examples, classifications and labels have a relative character shaped by the understanding of

10404-540: The West there have emerged new visions of ijtihad which emphasize substantive moral values over traditional juridical undertandings. Shia jurists did not use the term ijtihad until the 12th century. With the exception of Zaydis , the early Imami Shia were unanimous in censuring Ijtihad in the field of law ( Ahkam ) until the Shiite embrace of various doctrines of Mu'tazila and classical Sunnite Fiqh . After

10557-511: The application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of ijtihad , which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question. The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason ( ʿaql ) as

10710-469: The authenticity of hadiths could only be questioned through the chain of narration, though some western researchers suggests that primary sources may have also been evolved. Only several verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as inheritance , though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means. Islamic literature calls

10863-445: The beginning. Fiqh is concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, seeking to establish not only what is and is not legal, but also what is morally right and wrong. Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions" ( al-aḥkām al-khamsa ): mandatory ( farḍ or wājib ), recommended ( mandūb or mustaḥabb ), neutral ( mubāḥ ), reprehensible ( makrūh ), and forbidden ( ḥarām ). It

11016-677: The branches of fiqh ), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles. Classical Islamic jurisprudence refers how to elaborate and interpret religious sources that are considered reliable within the framework of "procedural principles" within its context such as linguistic and " rhetorical tools " to derive judgments for new situations by taking into account certain purposes and mesalih. Textual phrases usually dealt with under simple antithetical headings: general and particular, command and prohibition, obscure and clear, truth and metaphor. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when

11169-479: The central Javanese court cities of Yogyakarta and Surakarta , contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include gamelan music and wayang puppet shows. Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region, and as

11322-461: The chief of Rama 's army, dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita . It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar which states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram. Another source states that the word "Java" is derived from

11475-539: The complete and uncompromising implementation of "exact/pure sharia" without modifications, while modernists argue that it can/should be brought into line with human rights and other contemporary issues such as democracy, minority rights , freedom of thought , women's rights and banking by new jurisprudences. In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While

11628-444: The constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law and penalties in some. The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought calls by Islamic movements for full implementation of sharia, including hudud corporal punishments , such as stoning through various propaganda methods ranging from civilian activities to terrorism . The word sharīʿah

11781-466: The contemporary Islamist understanding ), some researchers see the early history of Islam , which has been modelled and exalted by most Muslims, not as a period when sharia was dominant, but a kind of " secular Arabic expansion ". Approaches to sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond sectarian differences , fundamentalists advocate

11934-566: The death of Dahlan, Muhammadiyah only had 4,000 members but had built 55 schools and two clinics in Surabaya and Yogyakarta . After Abdul Karim Amrullah introduced the organisation to the Minangkabau people , a dynamic Muslim community, Muhammadiyah developed rapidly. In 1938, the organisation claimed 250,000 members, managed its 834 mosques, 31 libraries, 1,774 schools, and 7,630 ulama . Minangkabau businesspeople spread organization to

12087-494: The death of Hayam Wuruk and the coming of Islam to Indonesia , Majapahit went into decline. Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of Demak , Cirebon , and Banten were ascendant. The Mataram Sultanate became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face

12240-412: The development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated. Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided

12393-572: The divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well-being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property. Although most classical-era jurists recognized maslaha and maqasid as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law. Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning. Others regarded them as an "independent" source of law, whose general principles could override specific inferences based on

12546-546: The efforts of hadith scholars to weed out fabrications. After it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources, proponents of rules of jurisprudence supported by the hadith would extend the chains of transmission of the hadith back to Muhammad's companions. In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was al-Shafi'i , who formulated this idea (that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources) and other elements of classical legal theory in his work al-risala , but who

12699-480: The entire of Indonesia. During the 1965-66 political turbulence and violence , Muhammadiyah declared that the extermination of the Communist Party of Indonesia constituted Holy War, a view endorsed by other Islamic groups. (See also the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66 ). During the events surrounding the 1998 fall of Suharto , some parts of Muhammadiyah urged the leadership to form a party. Therefore,

12852-412: The establishment of judicial provisions, such as the identification of the criminals. According to the traditional understanding, four male fair witnesses were required for the accusation of adultery in court, and two male witnesses were required for any other verdict. In addition, the accusers would be punished with slander for accusations that do not meet the specified conditions as a note. For example,

13005-460: The face of the development of the understanding of law and the increasing reactions to corporal punishment - claim that the verse determines the punishment of "concrete sequential criminal acts" - such as massacre, robbery and rape - in addition to rebellion against the legitimate government, and that the punishment to be given depends on the existence of these preconditions. The body of hadith provides more detailed and practical legal guidance, but it

13158-582: The fard rule. 1. Nass , (only verses of the Qur'an can be accepted as evidence here, not hadiths ) 2.The expression of the text referring to the subject must be clear and precise enough not to allow other interpretations. The term wajib is used for situations that do not meet the second of these conditions. However, this understanding may not be sufficient to explain every situation. For example, Hanafis accept 5 daily prayers as fard. However, some religious groups such as Quranists and Shiites , who do not doubt that

13311-481: The first African exodus. There is evidence that the Java population of H. erectus lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled a savannah , but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass ( Poaceae ), ferns , Ficus , and Indigofera , which are typical of lowland rainforest. H. e. soloensis

13464-448: The first five Islamic centuries , ijtihad continued to practise amongst Sunni Muslims. The controversy surrounding ijtihad started with the beginning of the twelfth century. By the 14th century, Islamic Fiqh prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and then ijtihad was gradually restricted. In the modern era, this gave rise to a perception amongst Orientalist scholars and sections of

13617-439: The first three or the first four categories. The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity ( ḍarūra ) and on the underlying intention ( niyya ), as expressed in the legal maxim "acts are [evaluated according] to intention." Hanafi fiqh does not consider both terms as synonymous and makes a distinction between " fard " and " wajib "; In Hanafi fiqh, two conditions are required to impose

13770-821: The formal authority over Muslims. As of 2006, the organization was said to have "veered sharply toward a more conservative brand of Islam" under the leadership of Din Syamsuddin the head of the Indonesian Ulema Council . However, some factions of Muhammadiyyah tend to espouse the modernist movement of Muhammad Abduh rather than the Salafi doctrines of Rashīd Rîdá; which has been described as "rigid and conservative". Muhammadiyah refused to condemn LGBT people, because it believes that publicly condemning people affiliated with those identities and orientations would not help them "return to normalcy". Muhammadiyah

13923-424: The formation of fiqh while they have accepted the general outlines of the traditionalist account at first. In the late 19th century, an influential revisionist hypothesis was advanced by Ignác Goldziher and elaborated by Joseph Schacht in the mid-20th century. Schacht and other scholars argued that having conquered much more populous agricultural and urban societies with already existing laws and legal needs,

14076-535: The great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as cassava and maize that could sustain populations that could not afford rice. Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the Cultivation System to which couples responded by having more children in

14229-432: The hope of increasing their families’ ability to pay tax and buy goods. Cholera claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820. The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from

14382-399: The initial Muslim efforts to formulate legal norms regarded the Quran and Muhammad's hadiths as just one source of law, with jurist personal opinions, the legal practice of conquered peoples, and the decrees and decisions of the caliphs also being valid sources. According to this theory, most canonical hadiths did not originate with Muhammad but were actually created at a later date, despite

14535-583: The interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for wet-rice cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world. Java was the first place where Indonesian coffee was grown, starting in 1699. Today, coffea arabica is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations. The area of Java is about 132,011.65 square kilometres (50,969.98 sq mi) (including Madura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi) and minor offshore islands). It

14688-464: The island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometre and accounts for most of the population growth of Java. It is home to three metropolitan areas, Greater Jakarta (with outlying areas of Greater Serang and Greater Sukabumi ), Greater Bandung , and Greater Cirebon . From the 1970s to the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998,

14841-477: The island's most refined and exemplary. The territory from Banyumas in the west through to Blitar in the east and encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land. In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named the Banyumasan region, a cultural mingling occurred; bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the Banyumasan culture. In

14994-660: The island. Four main languages are spoken on the island: Javanese , Sundanese , Madurese , and Betawi . Javanese and Sundanese are the most spoken. The ethnic groups native to the island are the Javanese in the central and eastern parts and Sundanese in the western parts. The Madurese in the Eastern salient of Java are migrants from Madura Island , while the Betawi in the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from various ethnic groups in Indonesia . Most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While

15147-441: The island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surrounding Jakarta and Bandung , which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas. Java is the most populous major island in the world and is home to 56% of Indonesia's population, with

15300-470: The land of java, which he called шабайте (shabait/šabajte). Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north, and Christmas Island is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, the Sunda Strait to the west, the Indian Ocean to the south and Bali Strait and Madura Strait in the east. Java

15453-471: The last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home to H. floresiensis endemic to the island of Flores , Indonesia, and H. luzonensis endemic to the island of Luzon , the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of

15606-556: The laws that can be associated with the Quran in Sharia " hudud " (meaning the limits set by Allah). How the verse Al-Ma'idah 33, which describes the crime of hirabah , should be understood is a matter of debate even today. The verse talks about the punishment of criminals by killing, hanging, having their hands and feet cut off on opposite sides , and being exiled from the earth, in response to an -abstract- crime such as " fighting against Allah and His Messenger ". Today, commentators - in

15759-537: The leadership, including Muhammadiyah's chairman, Amien Rais , founded the National Mandate Party . Although gaining large support from Muhammadiyah members, this party has no official relationship with Muhammadiyah. The leader of Muhammadiyah said the members of his organisation are free to align themselves with political parties of their choosing, provided such parties have shared values with Muhammadiyah. In 2008, with 29 million members, Muhammadiyah

15912-665: The legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later date. The sources of judgment in classical fiqh are roughly divided into two: Manqūlāt (Quran and hadith) and Aqliyyāt (ijma, qiyas, ijtihad and others). Some of them (Aqliyyāt) are considered to be the product of scholastic theology and Aristotelian logic . It was an important area of debate among traditional fiqh scholars how much space should be given to rational methods in creating provisions such as extracting provisions from religious texts, as well as expanding, restricting, abolishing or postponing these provisions according to new situations, considering

16065-572: The letter of scripture . Taking maqasid and maslaha as an "independent" source of sharia - rather than an auxiliary one - will pave the way for the re-critique and reorganization of ahkam in the context of maqasid and maslaha, thus (including hudud ), which is often criticized in terms of today's values and seen as problematic, in terms of the purposes of sharia and social benefits will be replaced by new ones. Abdallah bin Bayyah goes further with an approach that prioritizes purpose and benefit among

16218-527: The lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the Twelver , Zaidi and Ismaili madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman. The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for

16371-459: The madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of takhayyur (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and talfiq (combining parts of different rulings on

16524-460: The main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only the Brantas river and Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could

16677-400: The majority of the people of Java are Muslim , Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four administrative provinces: Banten , West Java , Central Java , and East Java , and two special regions, Jakarta and Yogyakarta . The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. The island could possibly have been named after

16830-399: The medieval theologians Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 C.E / 728 A.H) and Ibn Qayyim (d. 1350 / 751 A.H). Muhammadiyah strongly opposes syncretism , where Islam had coalesced with animism (spirit worship) and with Hindu-Buddhist elements that were spread among communities from the pre-Islamic period. Muhammadiyah opposes the tradition of Sufism that allows a Sufi leader ( shaykh ) to be

16983-411: The necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of mentioned interpretative studies legal schools have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as Islamic scholars or imams on theoretical and practical applications of laws and regulations. Although sharia is presented as a form of governance in addition to its other aspects (especially by

17136-450: The north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lying tropical forest to high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a dry savanna environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions. Javan wildlife originally supported

17289-452: The past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to the Liang dynasty information, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD. The Taruma kingdom of western Java existed from the 5th to

17442-437: The patron of Mahayana Buddhism . This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century Borobudur and Prambanan in central Java. Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of Kediri , Singhasari and Majapahit were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit

17595-540: The people and groups who make them. For example, believing in the existence and miracles of Awliya is presented as a "condition" for orthodox Islam by many prominent Sunni creed writers such as Al-Tahawi and Nasafi and is accepted in traditional Sunnis and Shi'ism. However, this understanding, along with expressions of respect and visits to the graves of saints, are seen as unacceptable heresy by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as Salafism , Wahhabism and Islamic Modernism . About six verses address

17748-419: The people living around Batavia from around the 17th century. Betawis are creole people , mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as Malay , Sundanese , Javanese , Balinese , Minang , Bugis , Makassar , Ambonese , mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as Portuguese , Dutch , Arab , Chinese and Indian brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have

17901-490: The purpose and benefit, together with new sociologies, in the face of changing conditions. In this context, in the Classical period, the ulema were divided into groups (among other divisions such as political divisions) regarding the place of " 'Aql " vis-à-vis naql: those who rely on narration ( Atharists , Ahl al-Hadith ), those who rely on reason ( Ahl al-Kalām , Mu'tazila and Ahl al-Ra'y ) and those who tried to find

18054-561: The question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus ( ijma ). An Islamic scholar who perform ijtihad is called " mujtahid ". In the general understanding, beyond the limitation of ijtihad to those situations that do not have a clear ruling in the Quran and hadiths, scholars who have the ability to give general judgments are also ranked with definitions such as "mujtahid mutlaq", "mujtahid in sect", "mujtahid in issue". Rulings based on ijtihad are not decisions that require obligatory implementation for other Muslims. Throughout

18207-641: The rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created rice paddy and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to have Javan tigers and Javan elephants , but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect

18360-438: The religious and ethical precepts of Islam. It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the early conquests and modified others, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the community. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from

18513-566: The remnants of its fragile wildlife, such as Ujung Kulon , Mount Halimun-Salak , Gede Pangrango , Baluran , Meru Betiri , Bromo Tengger Semeru and Alas Purwo . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", dating back 1.3 million years were found along the banks of the Bengawan Solo River . H. erectus arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be

18666-481: The same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by

18819-632: The same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions. Other juristic genres include the qawāʿid (succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar. Classical jurisprudence has been described as "one of the major intellectual achievements of Islam" and its importance in Islam has been compared to that of theology in Christianity . The main Sunni schools of law ( madhhabs ) are

18972-422: The school's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith. Fiqh is traditionally divided into the fields of uṣūl al-fiqh (lit. the roots of fiqh ), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and furūʿ al-fiqh (lit.

19125-500: The sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population of H. e soloensis before the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. This site is quite far from the north coast of Java Island, and it is not always easy to determine the position of the coastline in prehistoric times because of significant geographical changes. The southern coastline and estuary of

19278-749: The sources of sharia and declares it to be the heart of "usul-al fiqh". While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence. These scholars expanded the inventory of maqasid to include such aims of Sharia as reform and women's rights ( Rashid Rida ); justice and freedom ( Mohammed al-Ghazali ); and human rights and dignity ( Yusuf al-Qaradawi ). Ijtihad lit.   ' physical ' or ' mental effort ' refers to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law , or exertion of

19431-431: The term maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa are the expressions maqāṣid aš-šāriʿ ("intentions of the legislature"), maqāṣid at-tašrīʿ ("intentions of the legislature "), ruḥ aš -šarīʿa ("Spirit of Sharia"), ḥikmat at-tašrīʿ ("Wisdom of Legislation") and falsafat at-tašrīʿ ("Philosophy of Legislation"). They were first clearly articulated by al-Ghazali (d. 1111), who argued that Maqāṣid and maslaha was God's general purpose in revealing

19584-462: The term sharia in discourses. A related term al-qānūn al-islāmī ( القانون الإسلامي , Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state. The primary meanings of the Arabic word šarīʿah , derived from the root š-r-ʕ . The lexicographical studies records two major areas of

19737-540: The testimony of two women can be equal to the testimony of a man, and a non-Muslim or a sinner cannot serve as an eyewitness against a Muslim. Men's share of the inheritance will be twice that of women. Islamic preachers constantly emphasize the importance of adalah , and in trials, the judge is not expected to observe equality among those on trial, but is expected to act fairly or balanced. Traditional fiqh states that legal and religious responsibility begins with rushd . The domain of furūʿ al-fiqh (lit. branches of fiqh)

19890-447: The valleys surrounding volcanic peaks. The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significant volcanic eruptions during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese, while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well. The western third of

20043-473: The vast majority of hadiths were handed down by only one or a few transmitters and were therefore seen to yield only probable knowledge. The uncertainty was further compounded by ambiguity of the language contained in some hadiths and Quranic passages. Disagreements on the relative merits and interpretation of the textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway in formulating alternative rulings. In Imam Malik 's usage, hadith did not consist only of

20196-528: The very beginning in Islamic history ; has been elaborated and developed over the centuries by legal opinions issued by qualified jurists -reflecting the tendencies of different schools - and integrated and with various economic, penal and administrative laws issued by Muslim rulers; and implemented for centuries by judges in the courts until recent times, when secularism was widely adopted in Islamic societies. Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources for Ahkam al-sharia :

20349-647: The victory of the Usulis who based law on principles ( usul ) over the Akhbaris ("traditionalists") who emphasized on reports or traditions ( khabar ) by the 19th century, Ijtihad would become a mainstream Shia practice. The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as istihsan (juristic preference), istislah (consideration of public interest) and istishab (presumption of continuity). Considering that, as

20502-432: The way a woman should dress when in public; Muslim scholars have differed as how to understand these verses, with some stating that a Hijab is a command (fard) to be fulfilled and others say simply not. The statement in the Qur'an that determines the status of slaves and concubines in the understanding of Sharia is as follows; ma malakat aymanuhum or milk al-yamin meaning " those whom your right hands possess ". It

20655-468: The western part of Java and Parahyangan as the heartland, the eastern salient of Java also known as Blambangan . Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java. The kejawen of Javanese culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as

20808-482: The wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult. The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival of Aji Saka in 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki's Ramayana , made around 500 BC, records that Java already had

20961-544: The word can appear without religious connotation. In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment, šarīʿah and its derivatives refers to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore. One another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy. The word is cognate with the Hebrew saraʿ שָׂרַע and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path". Some scholars describe it as an archaic Arabic word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to

21114-769: The words claimed to belong to Muhammad as is the case with Shiite Muslims . While hadith does not appear to be an important source of decision for early fiqh scholars such as Abu Hanifa , for later scholars, hadith is perceived as the words of Muhammad merely and is considered as a strong and separate source of decision alongside the Quran. Today, Quranists do not consider hadiths as a valid source of religious rulings. Maqāṣid (aims or purposes) of Sharia and maṣlaḥa (welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times. Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī , Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam and Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi used maslaha and madasıd as equivalent terms. Synonyms for

21267-882: The world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs. The Zahiri school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along

21420-399: Was a practice used as a resolution tool in inter-tribal conflicts in pre-Islamic Arab society . The basis of this resolution was that a member from the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person. The "condition of social equivalence" meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who

21573-463: Was active in campaigning about the danger of bird flu in Indonesia. Muhammadiyah also published their own magazine called Suara Muhammadiyah ( English : The Voice of Muhammadiyah ). Initiated by founder Ahmad Dahlan himself, it was first published in 1915, making it one of the oldest publications in Indonesia. Its contents consist of information on the doctrine of the movement and reporting on Muhammadiyah's activities. The national headquarters

21726-474: Was appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship of John Fendall , Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of the Treaty of Paris . In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java. In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for

21879-704: Was centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesian independence was recognized. Java is divided into four provinces and two special regions: ), the Sapudi Islands (167.41 km ), Talango Island (50.278 km ), Masalembu (40.85 km ) and the Giligenteng Islands (30.32 km ). (2) Other offshore islands are included in this figure, but are comparatively very small in population and area; they include Nusa Barong (100 km ), Bawean (196 km ), Karimunjawa (78 km ), Nusa Kambangan (121 km ), Panaitan (170 km ), and

22032-437: Was equivalent to the murdered person. For example, only a slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. In other cases, compensatory payment ( Diya ) could be paid to the family of the murdered. On top of this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period. The main verse for implementation in Islam is Al Baqara 178: "Believers! Retaliation

22185-482: Was established by Wijaya , and by the end of the reign of Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, Gajah Mada , led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests. Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With

22338-596: Was established. In establishing schools, Muhammadiyah received significant help from the Budi Utomo , an important nationalist movement in Indonesia in the first half of the twentieth century, which provided teachers. Muhammadiyah has generally avoided politics. Unlike its traditionalist counterpart, the Nahdlatul Ulama, it never formed a political party . Since its establishment, it has devoted itself to educational and social activities. In 1925, two years after

22491-534: Was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologic subduction of the Australian Plate under the Sunda Plate . It is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest in Indonesia by landmass, at about 132,011.65 square kilometres (50,969.98 sq mi) (including Madura 's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi)). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of

22644-476: Was noted as a Muslim reformists organization. Its main activities are religious practice and education. It has built modern Islamic schools, differing from traditional pesantren . Some of its schools are also open to non-Muslims. In 2006 there were around 5,754 schools owned by Muhammadiyah. It also functioned as a charitable organization involved in health care . In 2016, it owned several hundred non-profit medical clinics and hospitals across Indonesia. In 2006, it

22797-458: Was originally in Yogyakarta . However, by 1970 the committees dealing with education, economics, health and social welfare had been relocated to the national capital, Jakarta . Muhammadiyah is supported by several autonomous organizations: The central committee structure consists of five advisors, a chairman with several deputies, a vice chairman, a secretary general with some deputies, and

22950-568: Was preceded by a body of Islamic law not based on primacy of Muhammad's hadiths. Some articles that may be considered precursors of sharia law and rituals can be found in the pre-Islamic Arabic Religions ; Hajj , salāt and zakāt could be seen in pre-Islamic Safaitic-Arabic inscriptions, and continuity can be observed in many details, especially in todays hajj and umrah rituals. The veiling order , which distinguishes between slaves and free women in Islam , also coincides with similar distinctions seen in pre-Islamic civilizations. Qisas

23103-503: Was recognized early on that not all of them were authentic. Early Islamic scholars developed personal criteria for evaluating their authenticity by assessing trustworthiness of the individuals listed in their transmission chains. These studies narrowed down the vast corpus of prophetic traditions to several thousand "sound (seeming to collectors)" hadiths, which were collected in several canonical compilations. The hadiths which enjoyed concurrent transmission were deemed mutawatir ; however,

23256-457: Was the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java by H. erectus , beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong. If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population of H. erectus which sheltered in

23409-531: Was the second-largest Muslim organization in Indonesia, after Nahdlatul Ulama . Muhammadiyah follows the Athari school of Sunni Islam , accepting only taking naqli ( scripturalist ) and rejecting all aqli ( rationalist ) tendencies. It emphasizes the authority of the Qur'an and the Hadiths as supreme Islamic law that serves as the legitimate basis of the interpretation of religious belief and practices. This

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