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135-562: Late Qing reforms started in 1901, and since they were implemented with the backing of the Empress Dowager Cixi , they are also called Cixi's New Policies. The reforms were often considered more radical than the earlier Self-Strengthening Movement which came to an abrupt end with China's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895. Despite the reforms and other political struggles the revolutionaries led

270-636: A concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor in her adolescence, she gave birth to a son, Zaichun , in 1856. After the Xianfeng Emperor's death in 1861, his five-year-old son became the Tongzhi Emperor, and Cixi assumed the role of co-empress dowager alongside Xianfeng's widow, Empress Dowager Ci'an . Cixi ousted a group of regents appointed by the late emperor and assumed the regency along with Ci'an. Cixi then consolidated control over

405-531: A battalion commander, 58-64 taels for a company commander, 25 taels for Lieutenants, 5.1 taels for sergeants, 4.8 taels for corporals, 4.5 taels for first-class privates, 4.2 taels for privates, 3.3 taels for supernumeraries. In 1902, Beiyang Fleet officer Sa Zhenbing proposed four methods for reviving the Imperial Chinese Navy . First, sending naval officers to study in Japan. Second, setting up

540-596: A call for the creation of a constitutional monarchy. The de facto head of state Empress Dowager Cixi , previously opposed to the reform movement, had begun to grow sympathetic in the wake of China's humiliation in the Boxer Rebellion and the upset victory of the constitutionalist Empire of Japan during the Russo-Japanese War . Administrative, bureaucratic, and judicial reforms were the first major focus; redundant and archaic offices were abolished,

675-406: A lengthy plan for the reorganisation of the army. The report called for the regular dispatch of central government officials to the provinces to actually check that imperial decrees were being followed something which was not the case previously. In a concession to the provinces the new armies were to be controlled by the provinces and raised by them but ultimately responsible to the throne and used by

810-593: A military shilang who had tried to bribe his way out of demotion, and He Guiqing, then Viceroy of Liangjiang , who fled Changzhou in the wake of an incoming Taiping army instead of trying to defend the city. A number of reforms were implemented, such as the development of the Zongli Yamen, an official foreign ministry to deal with international affairs, the restoration of regional armies and regional strongmen, modernization of railroads, factories, and arsenals, an increase of industrial and commercial productivity, and

945-546: A naval school in Jiangyin. Third, building Mawei Shipyard as a ship repair base. Fourth, setting up a naval guard town in Yantai and Fuzhou. The policies reformed almost every aspect of governmental affairs: The impact of these reforms varied from place to place. Many regions were virtually unchanged, while the provinces in the lower Yangzi valley had already taken the lead. The province of Zhili (roughly present day Hebei )

1080-500: A new threat to her power. In 1881, she put a halt to the policy of sending children abroad to study and withdrew her formerly open attitude towards foreigners. In 1872, the Tongzhi Emperor turned 17. Under the guidance of Empress Dowager Ci'an, he was married to Lady Arute . The new empress's grandfather, Duanhua, Prince Zheng, was one of the eight regents ousted from power in the Xinyou Coup of 1861. He had been Cixi's rival during

1215-401: A post at or above the seventh rank of the civil service or the fifth rank of the military, or wealth (either through a business or land holdings) judged at above 5,000 yuan . Criminals, opium users, police officers, students, priests, and those with family members in disreputable careers were barred from voting or standing as candidates. Women were additionally barred from voting. Following

1350-599: A relatively conservative-protective one to an aggressive-colonial one. Also, after the British expedition to Tibet in 1904 and the Sino-British treaty in 1906 , Qing China sent the 1910 expedition to Tibet for establishing direct rule over Tibet. The New Policies are judged now to have been a substantive beginning for China's reorganization which was destroyed after the death of the Dowager Empress in 1908 by

1485-550: A result, Tongzhi asked the Board of Finance to forage for the necessary funds. In addition, he encouraged members of the nobility and high officials to donate funds from their personal resources. Once construction began, the emperor checked its progress on a monthly basis, and would often spend days away from court, indulging himself in pleasures outside of the Forbidden City. Uneasy about Tongzhi's neglect of national affairs,

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1620-421: A separate election later in the year. Both voters and elector candidates were subject to the same set of requirements, beyond a minimum age of 25 for voters and 30 for electors. To be eligible to vote or run, citizens were required to have either taught at above the primary level for at least three years, graduated from a secondary school, previously held the imperial examination rank of gongsheng ( 貢生 ), held

1755-486: A suitable place to live after retiring from political affairs, Cixi continued to influence the decisions and actions of the Guangxu Emperor even after he began his formal rule at age 19. Along with an entourage of court officials, Guangxu would pay visits to her every second or third day at which major political decisions would be made. Weng Tonghe observed that while the emperor dealt with day-to-day administration,

1890-543: A triumphal progress along the decorated road between the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, decorations for the Beijing city gates and monumental archways, free theatrical performances, remission of punishments and the restoration of degraded officials. However, the war between China and Japan forced the empress dowager to cancel the lavish celebrations she had planned and settle for a much smaller commemoration that

2025-458: A warning of the imminent loss of the " Mandate of Heaven " by current rulers. For Guangxu's empress, Cixi chose her niece, and Guangxu's cousin, Jingfen . Cixi in addition selected two concubines for the emperor who were sisters, Consorts Jin and Zhen . Guangxu eventually would prefer to spend more time with Consort Zhen, neglecting his empress, much to Cixi's dismay. In 1894, Cixi degraded Consort Zhen, citing intervention in political affairs as

2160-729: The North China Herald reported a relatively well-organized election in Shanxi. In most provinces, turnout was low even among the eligible population. Out of 21,073 registered voters in Shuntian Prefecture (containing Beijing ), only a little over 1,500 votes were cast. Somewhere between 40–70% of eligible voters in Jiangsu participated; in Fujian, turnout was as high as 40% in the cities, while ranging from 10–20% in

2295-587: The 1911 Revolution which resulted in the fall of the Qing dynasty. In China, the reform is most commonly known as New Policies of the late Qing dynasty (清末新政), and is also called Gengzi New Policies (庚子新政), Post-Gengzi New Policies (庚子后新政). After the fall of the Qing dynasty, in the Republic of China, it was called "Shame-covering reforms" (遮羞变法). In Hong Kong , it was called Late Qing reforms (晚清改革), and in Japan , it

2430-865: The Constitutional Commission to begin a twelve-year constitutional reform process, inspired by Japan's Meiji Restoration and constitution . Under the supervision of Yuan Shikai, the Tianjin County Council held the first western-style elections in Chinese history in August 1907. Following a proposal by Yuan in July, on 19 October the Constitutional Commission received imperial assent to organize provincial assemblies ( 谘议局 ; Zīyìjú ), in preparation for

2565-499: The Hundred Days' Reform aimed at sweeping political, legal and social changes and issued edicts for far-reaching modernising reforms. 1909 Chinese provincial elections The Qing dynasty held its first set of provincial assembly elections from February to June 1909. Following a lengthy period of political turmoil and the failure of the 1898 Hundred Days' Reform , the constitutionalist movement gained approval from

2700-695: The Sino-French War of 1884–1885. Cixi used China's loss in the war as a pretext for getting rid of Prince Gong and other important decision-makers in the Grand Council in 1885. She downgraded Prince Gong to "advisor" and elevated the more easily influenced Prince Chun, Guangxu's father. When it was first developed by Empress Dowager Cixi, the Beiyang Fleet was said to be the strongest navy in East Asia. Before her nephew Guangxu took over

2835-613: The Summer Palace , destroyed by the English and French in the Second Opium War, would be completely rebuilt under the pretext that it was a gift to Cixi and Ci'an. Historians also suggest that it was an attempt to drive Cixi from the Forbidden City so that he could rule without interference in policy or his private affairs. The imperial treasury was almost depleted at the time from internal strife and foreign wars, and as

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2970-551: The Tongmenghui revolutionary organization, although firm numbers are unknown. The assemblies agitated for a variety of economic and political reforms, which brought them into conflict with the provincial governors, who held veto power over the bodies. Before another set of elections could be held, the 1911 Revolution saw the collapse of the dynasty and the creation of the Republic of China . The first provincial elections under

3105-583: The "Eight Regent Ministers" to direct and support the future emperor. Xianfeng died on 22 August 1861 at the Chengde Mountain Resort in Rehe Province. Xianfeng's heir was his five-year-old son with Noble Consort Yi. It is commonly assumed that on his deathbed, Xianfeng summoned his empress and Noble Consort Yi and gave each of them a stamp. He hoped that when his son ascended the throne, the two women would cooperate in harmony and help

3240-421: The "barbarians" that had caused Xianfeng to flee to Rehe Province "greatly against his will", among other charges. To display her high moral standards, Cixi executed only three of the eight regents. Prince Gong had suggested that Sushun and others be executed by the most painful method, known as slow slicing ("death by a thousand cuts"), but Cixi declined the suggestion and ordered that Sushun be beheaded, while

3375-509: The Boxer groups and declared war on the invaders. The ensuing defeat was a stunning humiliation, ending with the occupation of Beijing and the Qing regime on the brink of collapse. When Cixi returned from Xi'an , she backtracked and began to implement fiscal and institutional reforms aimed to turn China towards a constitutional monarchy. The deaths of both Cixi and Guangxu in November 1908 left

3510-636: The Chinese state on a daily basis. On various occasions, the Xianfeng Emperor had Noble Consort Yi read palace memorials for him and leave instructions on the memorials according to his will. As a result, she became well-informed about state affairs and the art of governing. In September 1860, during the closing stages of the Second Opium War , the British diplomatic envoy Harry Parkes was arrested along with other hostages, who were tortured and executed. In retaliation, British and French troops under

3645-501: The Commission received imperial approval in 1907 to create provincial assemblies. The following year, an indirect election system was outlined to fill these assemblies, with electoral districts drawn from the existing administrative divisions of prefectures, counties, and districts. They would be held in 21 of the country's 22 provinces; Xinjiang elections were postponed due to low rates of Chinese literacy. Suffrage and candidacy

3780-500: The Grand Councillors gave their advice in more complex cases, and in the most complex cases of all, the advice of Cixi was sought. In 1894, the First Sino-Japanese War broke out over Korea whose age-old allegiance to Beijing was wavering. After the decisive victory and ensuing Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan annexed Taiwan from Qing China. During this period, Cixi was continuously called upon to arbitrate policy-making, and

3915-423: The Guangxu Emperor was forced to address Cixi as qin baba ("Dear Father"), in order to enforce an image that she was the fatherly figure in the household. Guangxu began his education when he was aged five, taught by the imperial tutor Weng Tonghe, with whom he would develop a lasting bond. Shortly after Guangxu's accession, Cixi fell severely ill. This rendered her largely inaccessible to her young nephew and had

4050-530: The Manchurians belonged to the royal family, the cabinet was known as a "royal cabinet". In 1902, Shanxi governor Zhao Erxun proposed to reform the local administrative reforms such as the Baojia system, including the establishment of the modern police system and the expansion of local organizational functions. In 1907, the local official system was promulgated, and the financial power and military power of

4185-628: The Qing dynasty, succeeded to the throne, the provincial advisory councils were elected. In 1910, the Zizheng Institute held its first opening ceremony. In May 1911, the prince regent Zaifeng appointed Yikuang, Prince Qing as the Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet to organize the new cabinet. The head of the new cabinet had 13 members, including eight Manchurians, four Han Chinese, and one Mongolian. As seven of

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4320-549: The Second Opium War of 1856–60 was a wake-up call. Military strategies were outdated, both on land and sea and in terms of weaponry. Sensing an immediate threat from foreigners and realising that China's agricultural-based economy could not hope to compete with the industrial prowess of the West, Cixi decided that for the first time in Chinese history, China would learn from the Western powers and import their knowledge and technology. At

4455-596: The Sichuan assembly. The average age of the elected candidates was 41. The vast majority of members elected were constitutionalists. Although they formed a broad opposition bloc to revolutionary groups such as the Tongmenghui , they were not a unified faction; the Shandong and Guizhou assemblies quickly fell into factional conflict between conservative and progressive wings. Many of the progressive constitutionalists were younger and had studied abroad. A small fraction of

4590-560: The Summer Palace in Beijing . The greatest symbol of this enduring belief is the Marble Boat that is part of the Summer Palace. However, extensive research by Chinese historians suggests that Cixi was not the cause of the Chinese navy's decline. In actuality, China's defeat was caused by Guangxu's lack of interest in developing and maintaining the military. His close adviser, Grand Tutor Weng Tonghe, advised Guangxu to cut all funding to

4725-557: The Taiping rebels into the hands of a Han Chinese, Zeng Guofan . Additionally, in the next three years, Cixi appointed Han Chinese officials as governors in all southern Chinese provinces, raising alarm bells in the court, traditionally protective of Manchu dominance. Regarding the reforms of the Tongzhi Restoration, Mary C. Wright suggested that "Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed

4860-406: The Taiping rebels' defeat, Cixi was quick to move after Cai Shouqi , a minor scribe-official, filed a memorial accusing Prince Gong of corruption and showing disrespect to the emperor. Having built up a powerful base and a network of allies at court, Prince Gong considered the accusations insignificant. Cixi, however, took the memorial as a stepping stone to Prince Gong's removal. In April 1865, under

4995-583: The United States for studies. China's "learn from foreigners" programme quickly met with impediments. The Chinese military institutions were in desperate need of reform. Cixi's solution, under the advice of officials at court, was to purchase seven British warships. When the warships arrived in China, however, they were staffed with British sailors, all under British command. The Chinese were enraged at this "international joke", negotiations broke down between

5130-499: The assemblymen were secretly affiliated with the Tongmenghui; although precise figures and membership is unknown, at least four members of the Sichuan assembly were Tongmenghui members, as well as Shaanxi assembly vice-chairman Guo Xiren . The provincial assemblies convened on 14 October 1909. Contemporary political and press responses were favorable to the new assemblies; the conservative Viceroy of Liangguang , Zhang Renjun ,

5265-581: The boy emperor. The first stated that the two empresses dowager were to be the sole decision-makers "without interference," and the second changed the emperor's regnal title from Qixiang ( 祺祥 ; "auspicious") to Tongzhi ( 同治 ; "collective stability"). Despite being designated as the sole decision-makers, both Ci'an and Cixi were forced to rely on the Grand Council and a complex series of procedures in order to deal with affairs of state. When state documents came in, they were to be first forwarded to

5400-719: The command of Lord Elgin attacked Beijing, and by the following month they had burned the Old Summer Palace to the ground. Xianfeng and his entourage, including Noble Consort Yi, fled Beijing to Rehe Province (around present-day Chengde , Hebei ). On hearing the news of the destruction of the Old Summer Palace, Xianfeng, who was already showing signs of dementia, fell into a depression. He turned heavily to alcohol and other drugs and became seriously ill. He summoned eight of his most prestigious ministers, headed by Sushun , Zaiyuan and Duanhua , and named them

5535-512: The constitutional monarchy. On January 19, 1904, viceroy of Yun-Gui Ding Zhenduo and Yunnan provincial Patrol Lin Shaonian submitted the application for political reform to the imperial government. At the beginning of the July, Viceroy of Liangjiang Zhou Wei asked for the implementation of the "separation of the three powers" political system. On July 2, 1905, Yuan Shikai joined with Zhou Wei and viceroy of Huguang Zhang Zhidong to request

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5670-437: The coup and was ordered to commit suicide after Cixi's victory. As a consequence, there were tensions between Cixi and Arute, and this was often a source of irritation for Cixi. Moreover, Arute's zodiac symbol of tiger was perceived as life-threatening by the superstitious Cixi, whose own zodiac symbol was a goat. According to Cixi's belief, it was a warning from the gods that she would eventually fall prey to Arute. Empress Arute

5805-704: The court in the hands of Manchu conservatives, the two year-old Puyi on the throne, and a restless, deeply divided society. Historians both in China and abroad have debated Cixi's legacy. Historians have argued that she was a ruthless despot whose reactionary policies – although successful in managing to prolong the ailing Qing dynasty – led to its humiliation and eventual downfall in the Wuchang Uprising . However, revisionist chroniclers have suggested that Nationalist and Communist revolutionaries scapegoated her for deep-rooted problems which were beyond salvaging, and laud her penchant for moderate reform, including

5940-404: The creation of such assemblies, citing both western systems of local governance and the traditional principle of Fengjian . As the central government began to embrace the constitutional movement, reformist officials began to advocate for the establishment of local self-governance as a preliminary step towards the creation of a constitutional government. In 1907, the Grand Council established

6075-461: The curtains" ( 垂簾聽政 ), i.e., to assume power as de facto ruler. The same memorial also asked Prince Gong to enter the political arena as a principal "aide to the Emperor". When Xianfeng's funeral procession left for Beijing, Cixi took advantage of her alliances with Princes Gong and Chun. She and her son returned to the capital before the rest of the party, along with Zaiyuan and Duanhua, two of

6210-661: The dynasty when she installed her nephew as the Guangxu Emperor at the death of the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875. Ci'an continued as co-regent until her death in 1881. Cixi supervised the Tongzhi Restoration , a series of moderate reforms that helped the regime survive until 1911. Although Cixi refused to adopt Western models of government, she supported technological and military reforms and the Self-Strengthening Movement . She supported

6345-510: The eastern Zhongcui Palace. Noble Consort Yi was also elevated to "Empress Dowager Cixi". She was popularly known as the "West Empress Dowager" (西太后) because she lived inside the western Chuxiu Palace. By the time of Xianfeng's death, Empress Dowager Cixi had become a political strategist . In Rehe Province, while waiting for an astrologically favourable time to transport the emperor's coffin back to Beijing, Cixi conspired with court officials and imperial relatives to seize power. Cixi's position as

6480-403: The effect that Cixi had poisoned Ci'an, perhaps as a result of a possible conflict between Cixi and Ci'an over the execution of the eunuch An Dehai in 1869 or a possible will from the late Xianfeng Emperor that was issued exclusively to Ci'an. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Cixi poisoned Ci'an, but instead choose to believe that the cause of death

6615-428: The eight regents, while Sushun was left to accompany the deceased emperor's procession. Cixi's early return to Beijing meant that she had more time to plan with Prince Gong and ensure that the power base of the eight regents was divided between Sushun and his allies, Zaiyuan and Duanhua. In order to remove them from power, history was rewritten: the regents were dismissed for having carried out incompetent negotiations with

6750-594: The election preparatory office. Corruption, election fraud, and vote buying were frequent across the country. Some voters in Yangzhou, Jiangsu , were found to have voted by proxy, while some unqualified voters were allowed to cast ballots in Anhui . Votes cast in Ansu, Zhili, were decided by village brawls. In Houguan County , the results of two districts were voided due to suspicious polling booth supervision. In contrast,

6885-495: The emperor was sometimes even bypassed in decision-making processes. Cixi eventually was given copies of the secret palace memorials as well, a practice that was carried on until 1898, when it became unnecessary. In November 1894, Cixi celebrated her 60th birthday. Borrowing from the plans used for the celebrations of the 70th and 80th birthdays of Empress Xiaoshengxian (the Qianlong Emperor 's mother), plans included

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7020-462: The emperor's escapades. Tongzhi received a rigorous education from four famous teachers of Cixi's own choosing: Li Hongzao , Qi Junzao , Weng Xincun , and Woren . This group was later joined by Weng Xincun's son, Weng Tonghe ; the emperor's governor, also selected by Cixi, was Mianyu. The imperial teachers instructed the emperor in the classics and various old texts for which Tongzhi displayed little or no interest. Despite, or perhaps because of,

7155-607: The emperor's uncles Prince Gong and Prince Chun, along with other senior court officials, submitted a joint memorandum asking the emperor to cease the construction of the Summer Palace, among other recommendations. Tongzhi, unwilling to submit to criticism, issued an imperial edict in August 1874 to strip Prince Gong of his princely title and demote him to the status of a commoner. Two days later, Prince Dun, Prince Chun, Prince Fu , Jingshou , Prince Qing , Wenxiang , Baojun , and Grand Councillors Shen Guifen and Li Hongzao were all to be stripped of their respective titles and jobs. Seeing

7290-628: The emperor's youth as the main reason. Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, each with a different motive, requested that Guangxu's accession be postponed until a later date. Cixi, with her reputed reluctance, accepted the "advice" and legitimised her continued rule through a new legal document that allowed her to "aid" Guangxu in his rule indefinitely. Guangxu slowly began to take on more responsibilities in spite of Cixi's prolonged regency. In 1886, he attended his first field plowing ceremony and began commenting on imperial state documents. By 1887, he began to rule under Cixi's supervision. Guangxu married and took up

7425-422: The emperors' tombs", Cixi forbade its construction. When construction went ahead anyway in 1877 on Li Hongzhang's recommendation, Cixi asked that they be pulled by horse-drawn carts. She also refused to be driven in a motorcar, as the driver would be unable to lower himself in front of her, as custom dictated. Cixi was especially alarmed at the liberal thinking of people who had studied abroad, and saw that it posed

7560-417: The empress dowager than they did to the emperor, owing in part to her seniority and in part to her personalised approach to cultivating court favourites, many of whom would be given gifts of her artwork and invitations to join her at the theater for opera and acrobatics. In spite of her residence for a period of time at the Summer Palace, which had been constructed with the official intention of providing her

7695-410: The empresses dowager, then referred back to Prince Gong and the Grand Council. Having discussed the matters, Prince Gong and his colleagues would seek the instruction of the empresses dowager at audiences and imperial orders would be drawn up accordingly, with drafts having to be approved by the empresses dowager before edicts were issued. The most important role of the empresses dowager during the regency

7830-577: The end of summer, 1906, the delegation returned to China and submitted a report arguing that “The only way for the state to be powerful is constitutionalism”. On September 1, 1906, the Empress Dowager Cixi promulgated an imperial decree, announcing preparatory imitation of constitution . In 1907, the preparatory office of the Zizhengyuan Institute (Parliament) was established, and Ming Lun and Sun Jiaxuan were appointed as

7965-471: The establishment of a national assembly ( 資政院 ; Zīzhèngyuàn ) and proper provincial legislatures. Following this, various provinces (including Jiangsu , Guangdong , Guangxi , and Fengtian ) created unelected provincial assemblies with appointees from the local gentry. In July 1908, the central court produced two sets of regulations for the implementation of provincial assemblies and their elections. The "Regulations for Provincial Assembly Elections"

8100-520: The establishment of modern schools… and the sending of students abroad…”, the reforms were "…essentially a noisy demonstration without much substance or promise of accomplishment…". However, other historians, such as Diana Preston, place much greater weight on the influence of these reforms on the later development of China in its progression towards a more 'developed' society, contending that "…the events of 1900 and their aftermath precipitated reforms that, albeit late [and] grudging, were far-reaching and laid

8235-668: The expense of his four concubines, including Imperial Noble Consort Shushen , who was Cixi's preferred candidate for empress consort. As hostility grew between Arute and Cixi, Cixi suggested the emperor and empress spend more time on studies and spied on Tongzhi using palace eunuchs . After her warning was ignored, Cixi ordered the couple to separate, and Tongzhi purportedly spent several months following Cixi's order in isolation at Qianqing Palace . The young emperor, who could no longer cope with his grief and loneliness, grew more and more ill-tempered. He began to treat his servants with cruelty and punished them physically for minor offences. Under

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8370-698: The foundations for a modern state…". On 22 July 1908 the Qing government issued the Principles of the Constitution , modeled on the Japanese Meiji Constitution , which provided for gradual introduction of an electoral system beginning with local elections in 1908, followed in two years by elections for provincial legislatures, then two years later, elections for a national assembly. Special bureaus were set up in each province to prepare for setting up assemblies, directly subordinated to

8505-652: The founding of Peking University and Beiyang Army , and maintenance of political order in an era of destabilising European colonialism . Xingzhen of the Yehe Nara clan was born on the tenth day of the tenth lunar month in the 15th year of the Daoguang Emperor 's reign (29 November 1835). Her father was Huizheng ( 惠征 ), a member of the Bordered Blue Banner who held the title of a third class duke ( 三等公 ). Palace archives show that Huizheng

8640-519: The functions of the Six Boards were transferred to a new set of civil ministries, and the three northeastern Provinces were integrated into the administrative framework of the other provinces. The Qing government reduced the frequency of the imperial exams and began to promote a western-style education system; when this met resistance by local gentry, the examination system was abolished entirely in 1905. The government initially attended to replace

8775-628: The governor were reduced. The Ministry of Civil Affairs owned the function of the national patrol. In 1906, Yuan Shikai had already established the local “Autonomous Research Institute” and the Tianjin County Council in Tianjin. In 1908, the imperial government also began to set up autonomous research institutes in the urban area, and draft the "Regulations of the Provincial Consultative Councils", which

8910-415: The head of the Zongli Yamen, but rid him of his title of prince regent. Prince Gong would never return to political prominence again, and neither would the liberal and pro-reform policies of his time. Prince Gong's demotion revealed Cixi's iron grip on politics, and her lack of willingness to give up absolute power to anyone – not even Prince Gong, her most important ally in the Xinyou Coup. China's defeat in

9045-441: The imperial court and Empress Dowager Cixi in the aftermath of the Boxer Rebellion . Following administrative and bureaucratic reform, such as the abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905, the Qing government created the Constitutional Commission in preparation for a twelve-year transition from absolutism to a constitutional monarchy . Seeing local self-governance as a valuable initial step towards constitutionalism,

9180-550: The imperial examinations with a new form of civil service exam; however, little progress was made in the creation of such a system. Instead, elections began to be pursued by the central government as an alternative to examinations. Proposals for local and provincial assemblies were raised following the end of the Hundred Days' Reform. In the first few years of the 1900s, reformist and revolutionary thinkers such as Sun Yat-sen , Ho Kai , and Kang Youwei began to advocate for

9315-526: The imperial government set up a special institution "Inspection of the political pavilion" to study the constitutional government of each country, and provide guidance on constitutional reform. In the same year, on December 7, the first group led by Dai Hongci and Duanfang set off at the first stop, the United States, and was met by the US President Theodore Roosevelt . On January 14, 1906, the second group led by Zaize set out. At

9450-470: The imperial government to implement a constitutional government over a twelve-year period. They also asked the government to assign ministers to go abroad to investigate various political formats. On September 24, 1905, Empress Dowager Cixi decided to assign five ministers: Zhen Prince Zaize, Financial Minister Dai Hongci, Military Minister Xu Shichang , Governor of Hunan Duanfang and Prime Minister of Business Department Shaoying to go abroad. On November 25,

9585-408: The imperial household. Tensions grew between the two empresses dowager and the eight regents, who were led by Sushun. The regents did not appreciate Cixi's interference in political affairs, and their frequent confrontations with the empresses dowager left Ci'an frustrated. Ci'an often refused to come to court audiences, leaving Cixi to deal with the ministers alone. Secretly, Cixi had begun gathering

9720-458: The institution of a period of peace that allowed China time to modernize and develop. Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the increasingly decrepit state of the Manchu elites. Since the beginning of Qing rule over China in 1644, most major positions at court had been held by Manchus. Cixi, again in a reversal of imperial tradition, entrusted the country's most powerful military unit against

9855-445: The intransigent stand of conservative Manchus in the Qing court. Empress Dowager Cixi Empress Dowager Cixi ( Mandarin pronunciation: [tsʰɹ̩̌.ɕì] ; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) was a Manchu noblewoman of the Yehe Nara clan who effectively controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing dynasty as empress dowager and regent for almost 50 years, from 1861 until her death in 1908. Selected as

9990-428: The joined influence of court eunuchs and Zaicheng, Prince Gong's eldest son and Tongzhi's best friend, the emperor managed to escape the palace in search of pleasure in the unrestricted parts of Beijing. For several evenings, Tongzhi disguised himself as a commoner and secretly spent the nights in the brothels of Beijing. His sexual habits became common talk among court officials and commoners, and there are many records of

10125-498: The lack of qualified officers were often employed to instruct the men. The officers therefore were useless in battle and the men had no faith in their officers. The officers were therefore expected to instruct their men. The recruits themselves were to have a literacy rate of 20% along with promotion and demotion being introduced. These literate men were to form the NCOs of the army. A system of pensions and rewards left unenforced since 1737

10260-487: The late 1800s. As it entered the 20th century, the Qing empire was in social and political turmoil. Despite the repression of the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, the constitutionalist movement continued to advocate for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in lieu of Qing absolutism . The essayist Liang Qichao emerged as the movement's most influential leader. In June 1905, prominent imperial officials Yuan Shikai , Zhang Zhidong , and Zhou Fu jointly submitted

10395-669: The late 19th century; although the majority had reached this status through the examination system, an increasing number had purchased gentry status from the central government, at a cost which had been dramatically lowered in the decades following the Taiping Rebellion . Officials were often forced to give concessions — in the form of leadership positions within the preparatory offices — to local gentry in order to guarantee coöperation. Electoral divisions followed provincial administrative subdivisions of prefectures, counties, and districts. Seats were allotted to these according to

10530-440: The lower-ranked empress dowager had no intrinsic political power attached to it. In addition, her son, the young emperor, was not a political force himself. As a result, it became necessary for her to ally herself with other powerful figures, including Empress Dowager Ci'an. Cixi suggested that they become co-reigning empress dowagers, with powers exceeding the eight regents; the two had long been close friends since Cixi first came to

10665-522: The main reason. According to some reports, she even had her flogged. Consort Jin had also been implicated in Consort Zhen's reported influence peddling and also apparently suffered a similar punishment. A cousin of theirs, Zhirui, was banished from the capital to a military outpost. On 5 March 1889, Cixi retired from her second regency, but nonetheless served as the effective head of the imperial family. Many officials felt and showed more loyalty to

10800-399: The mayhem unfold from behind the scenes, Cixi and Ci'an made an unprecedented appearance at court directly criticising Tongzhi for his wrongful actions and asked him to withdraw the edict; Cixi said that "without Prince Gong, the situation today would not exist for you and me." Feeling a grand sense of loss at court and unable to assert his authority, Tongzhi returned to his former habits. It

10935-459: The navy and army, because he did not see Japan as a true threat, and there were several natural disasters during the early 1890s which the emperor thought to be more pressing to expend funds on. Guangxu technically gained the right to rule at the age of 16 in 1887 after Cixi issued an edict to arrange a ceremony to mark his accession. Because of her prestige and power, however, court officials voiced their opposition to Guangxu's personal rule, citing

11070-527: The new government would be held in 1912. Since the Song dynasty (960–1279), positions within the Imperial Chinese bureaucracy and civil governance were filled through the imperial examination system , merging the educational and political systems. This system was carried through to the late Qing dynasty , although it had come under increasing intellectual opposition as corrupt and ineffective during

11205-493: The only empress dowager in the Qing dynasty to assume the role of regent, ruling from behind the curtains. This coup is historically known as the Xinyou Coup because it took place in the xinyou year, the name of the year 1861 in the Chinese sexagenary cycle . In November 1861, a few days following the Xinyou Coup, Cixi was quick to reward Prince Gong for his help. He was appointed prince regent and his eldest daughter

11340-508: The other half of the assembly appointed by the imperial court. Before another set of provincial elections could be held, the Wuchang Uprising led to an anti-Qing revolutionary movement spreading across much of China. The imperial government responded with the Shijiu xintiao , a further series of political reforms with some inspiration from the British constitutional system; this did little to curb unrest, and even many constitutionalists joined

11475-444: The other two also marked for execution, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, were given pieces of white silk for them to hang themselves with. In addition, Cixi refused outright the idea of executing the family members of the regents, as would be done in accordance with imperial tradition of an alleged usurper. Ironically, Qing imperial tradition also dictated that women and princes were never to engage in politics. In breaking with tradition, Cixi became

11610-575: The presidents of the Zizhengyuan Institute. Later, Zhang Jiang and Tang Shouqian established a preparatory constitutional guild in Shanghai. After that, various constitutional guilds were established in major cities all around China. In August 1908, the imperial government published the "Constitutional Outline", "The list of Preparations in next few years", and three appendices including "Civil Rights and Obligations", "The essentials of Parliament", "Election Law Essentials". These proposed laws regulated that

11745-562: The pressure and stress put upon the young emperor, he despised learning for the majority of his life. According to Weng Tonghe's diary, Tongzhi could not read a memorandum in full sentences by the age of 16. Worried about her son's inability to learn, Cixi only pressured him more. When he was given personal rule in November 1873 at the age of 18 (four years behind the usual custom), Tongzhi proved to be an incompetent ruler. Tongzhi made two important policy decisions during his short stint of rule, which lasted from 1873 to 1875. First, he decreed that

11880-595: The pretext that Prince Gong had "improper court conduct before the two empresses," among a series of other charges, the prince was dismissed from all his offices and appointments, but was allowed to retain his status as a noble. The dismissal surprised the nobility and court officials and brought about numerous petitions for his return. Prince Gong's brothers, Prince Dun and Prince Chun, both sought their brother's reinstatement. Prince Gong himself, in an audience with Cixi and Ci'an, burst into tears. Bowing to popular pressure, Cixi allowed Prince Gong to return to his position as

12015-498: The principles of the Hundred Days' Reforms of 1898, but feared that sudden implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and permit the Japanese and other foreign powers would take advantage of China. She placed the Guangxu Emperor under virtual house arrest for supporting radical reformers, publicly executing the main reformers . After the Boxer Rebellion led to invasion by Allied armies , Cixi initially backed

12150-411: The promulgation of these regulations, preparatory offices were formed in each province; these were staffed by a mix of existing officials and the scholar-gentry. Although the abolition of the examination system prevented citizens from becoming part of the gentry, the class still held immense influence. Including their family members, slightly under two percent of the population were members of the gentry by

12285-545: The provincial advisory council and Central Advisory Council would be elected in the next year and the constitution was plan to prepared in nine years. On November 14, 1908, the Emperor Guangxu died, with Empress Dowager Cixi dying the following day. In 1909, the Qing government held parliamentary elections to the Advisory Council and provincial elections . In 1909, after Pu Yi , the last emperor of

12420-479: The provincial governor and consisting of scholars and gentry. They set up regulations for carrying out the elections, a timetable for carrying them out, and notices. The first to hold elections for the provincial assembly was the Jiangsu province, in 1909, and elections occurred on time in all provinces except for Xinjiang . The New Policies also resulted in drastic change of the Manchu policy toward Mongolia from

12555-521: The quota of students enrolled at prefecture, department, and county schools. Manchu bannermen were also allocated seats. The central government initially planned twenty-three provincial assemblies, one for each province, with Jiangsu divided into a northern assembly in Suzhou and a northern assembly in Nanjing . The two Jiangsu assemblies were dropped due to local pressure, while an assembly for Xinjiang

12690-456: The reins of power in 1889. By that year, the emperor was already 18, older than the conventional marriage age for emperors. Prior to his wedding, a large fire engulfed the Gate of Supreme Harmony at the Forbidden City. This event followed a trend of recent natural disasters that were considered alarming by many observers. According to traditional Chinese political theory, such incidents were taken as

12825-466: The result of leaving Ci'an to attend to most of the affairs of state. The sudden death of Ci'an in April 1881 brought Cixi a new challenge. Ci'an had taken little interest in running state affairs, but was the decision-maker in most family affairs. As the empress of the Xianfeng Emperor, she took seniority over Cixi, despite being two years her junior. Some believe that rumours began circulating at court to

12960-402: The revolutionaries. Yuan Shikai , the leader of the Qing armies, began to collaborate with the revolutionaries; the Republic of China was declared on 1 January 1912, and the emperor was soon forced to abdicate. The new republic created its own national and provincial assemblies. New provincial assembly elections were held in 1912 , similarly plagued by corruption. Chung Po-yee, a member of both

13095-540: The rural countryside. Foreign eyewitnesses reported very low enthusiasm and participation within much of the country. Members of the provincial assemblies were largely scholar-gentry , especially those with advanced degrees. Out of a set of five assemblies with known member compositions, a slight majority of members were higher-ranking gentry, with only about 10% from non-gentry backgrounds. A small but prominent percentage of members had studied outside of China‚ mainly in Japan; Japanese-educated members were most numerous in

13230-442: The support of talented ministers, soldiers, and others who were ostracized by the eight regents for personal or political reasons. Among them were two of Xianfeng's brothers: Prince Gong and Prince Chun . Prince Gong had been excluded from power, yet harboured great ambitions. While Cixi aligned herself with the two princes, a memorial came from Shandong asking for her to "rule from behind the curtains" or "listen to politics behind

13365-431: The thousands and were not considered political accoutrements, rather objects of art commissioned for pleasure by emperors to stamp on items such as paintings, or given as presents to the concubines. Upon the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, his empress was elevated to the status of empress dowager. Although her official title was "Empress Dowager Ci'an", she was popularly known as the "East Empress Dowager" because she lived in

13500-412: The throne in 1889, Cixi wrote out explicit orders that the navy should continue to develop and expand gradually. However, after Cixi went into retirement, all naval and military development came to a drastic halt. Japan's victories over China has often been falsely rumored to be the fault of Cixi. Many believed that Cixi was the cause of the navy's defeat by embezzling funds from the navy in order to build

13635-593: The throne when necessary. The 8 banners were not included in the program of reform notably. The report highlighted the need for specialised officers that were educated as well as officers in the staff role and in the frontline role with a preference for academy-trained personnel. The pay of officers was to be increased to cover their cost of living and reduce the need for officers to indulge in corruption to cover their own costs with harsher punishments for corruption. Officers were given detailed regulations and were expected to lead their men, not their drill instructors, who due to

13770-539: The time, three prominent Han Chinese officials, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, had all begun industrial programs in the country's southern regions. In supporting these programmes, Cixi also decreed the opening of the Tongwen Guan in 1862, a school for foreign languages in Beijing. The Tongwen Guan specialised in new-age topics such as astronomy and mathematics, as well as the English, French and Russian languages. Groups of young boys were also sent abroad to

13905-507: The two empresses dowager, Zaitian , the four-year-old firstborn son of Prince Chun and Cixi's sister, was to become the new emperor. 1875 was declared the first year of the Guangxu era; Guangxu was the new emperor's regnal name and it means "glorious succession". Zaitian was taken from home and for the remainder of his life would be cut completely off from his family. While addressing Ci'an conventionally as huang e'niang ("Empress Mother"),

14040-411: The two parties, and China returned the warships to Britain, where they were to be auctioned off. Scholars sometimes attribute the failure of China's foreign programmes to Cixi's conservative attitude and old methods of thinking, and contend that Cixi would learn only so much from the foreigners, provided it did not infringe upon her own power. Under the pretext that a railway was too loud and would "disturb

14175-469: The two. Despite this, the assemblies persistently agitated for political reform and the creation of a national parliament. Within the first year of their operation, they passed a large volume of bills, proposals, and petitions, generally relating to economic development. In 1910, the provincial assemblies elected half of the members of the National Assembly , similarly an advisory council, with

14310-489: The voter census would not be a precursor to new taxation. In Shandong , Shanxi , and Yunnan , lecturers were sent to inform voters of the electoral population and attempt to increase participation. As the infant Xuantong Emperor had ascended to the throne after voter registration had begun, many registered voters were listed with names violating the new name taboo ; in southern Jiangsu, those who could not be contacted to change their names in time had their names changed by

14445-399: The western standard firstly, the standing army then the first-class reserves then the second-class reserves the regulars would serve for 3 years then they would return home and be enrolled in the first reserve for a further 3 years then 4 years in the 2nd reserve with decreasing pay and training per level of service. The report also called for a new table of organisation the basic organisation

14580-594: The year of official examinations, whereby officials of all levels presented their political reports from the previous three years. Cixi decided that the time was ripe for a bureaucratic overhaul, and she personally sought audience with all officials above the level of provincial governor, who had to report to her personally. Cixi thus took on part of the role usually given to the Bureaucratic Affairs Department (吏部). Cixi had two prominent officials executed to serve as examples for others: Qingying,

14715-430: The young emperor to grow and mature together. This may also have been done as a check on the power of the eight regents. There is no evidence for this incident, however, and it is unlikely that the emperor ever would have intended Noble Consort Yi to wield political power. It is possible that the seal, allegedly given as a symbol for the child, was really just a present for Noble Consort Yi herself. Informal seals numbered in

14850-526: Was Prince-Regent in the imperial court. Prince Gong gathered under his command the support of all outstanding Han Chinese armies. In addition, Prince Gong controlled daily court affairs as the head of the Grand Council and the Zongli Yamen (the de facto foreign affairs ministry). With his increasing stature, Prince Gong was considered a threat to Cixi and her power. Although Prince Gong was rewarded for his conduct and recommendation of Zeng Guofan before

14985-425: Was a corps of 2 divisions with each division containing a staff 2 brigades of infantry 1 regiment each of cavalry and artillery 1 battalion each of engineers and transportation men as well as a band. The authorised strength of a division was 748 officers and 10,436 NCOs and privates with 1,328 support staff for 12,512, each corp was to possess 1,595 officers, 23,760 enlisted men, 4,469 horses and mules and 108 g uns . It

15120-480: Was a model. With the strong support of the Empress Dowager, Yuan Shikai set up a strong bureaucracy to administer tax collection, local schools and police. However, there is still debate among the academic community regarding the actual effect that these reforms had on the Chinese people, historian Immanuel Hsü claiming that, apart from the successes in "...the abolition of the civil service examinations…

15255-445: Was a sudden stroke , as validated by traditional Chinese medicine . In the years between 1881 and 1883, Cixi resorted to written communication only with her ministers. The young emperor reportedly was forced to conduct some audiences alone, without Cixi to assist him. The once fierce and determined Prince Gong, frustrated by Cixi's iron grip on power, did little to question Cixi on state affairs, and supported Manchu involvement in

15390-410: Was an 115-clause document which established qualifications for candidates and set in place the electoral processes. The provincial assembly elections were indirect elections via an electoral college ; voters would vote on a slate of electors, who would in turn elect the provincial assemblymen. In addition to their provincial duties, these assemblymen would elect the members of the National Assembly in

15525-480: Was back onto the helm of imperial power. Tongzhi died without a male heir, a circumstance that created an unprecedented succession crisis in the dynastic line. Members of the generation above were considered unfit, as they could not, by definition, be the successor of their nephew. Therefore, the new emperor had to be from a generation below or the same generation as the Tongzhi. After considerable disagreement between

15660-622: Was called the Guangxu's New Policies, in reference to Emperor Guangxu (光绪新政). In April 1901, the Qing dynasty established the Administration Office to supervise the overall plan for reform, appointing Ronglu , Yikuang and Li Hongzhang as managers, nominating Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi as coordinators. Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi jointly submitted "Three folds for reform" to the imperial government, which includes setting reform direction, learning from Japan and implementing

15795-456: Was elevated to the third rank of imperial consort as "Noble Consort Yi". This rank placed her second only to Empress Niohuru among the women within Xianfeng's harem . Unlike many of the other Manchu women in the imperial household, Noble Consort Yi was known for her ability to read and write Chinese. This skill granted her numerous opportunities to help the ailing emperor in the governing of

15930-420: Was estimated that each corp would cost 2,778,222 taels per corps or 1,300,000 per division. With 36 divisions this would amount to a minimum expense of 50,000,000 taels annually on the new army. A new pay scale was also introduced with monthly payments of 1600 taels for a corps commander, 1000 taels for a division commander, 500 taels for a brigade commander. 400 taels for a regimental commander, 180-260 taels for

16065-409: Was generally low; while 40–70% of eligible voters in Jiangsu participated, rural areas of Fujian saw only 10–20% turnout. As a factor of the total population of the provinces, turnout varied from 0.19% and 0.62%. The elected provincial assemblies were composed largely of constitutionalists, which were often divided between progressive and conservative wings. Some assemblymen were clandestine members of

16200-854: Was held in the Forbidden City. After coming to the throne, Guangxu became more reform-minded. After a humiliating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894, during which the Chinese Beiyang Fleet was virtually destroyed by the Imperial Japanese Navy , the Qing government faced unprecedented challenges internally and abroad, with its very existence at stake. Under the influence of reformist-officials Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao , Guangxu believed that by learning from constitutional monarchies such as Japan and Germany , China would become politically and economically powerful. In June 1898, Guangxu launched

16335-458: Was initially opposed to the creation of the local assemblies, but described their membership as well-spoken and knowledgeable about the problems facing the country. A North China Herald account described the members of the Shanxi provincial assembly as peaceful and intelligent. The assemblies' powers were primarily consultative. The provincial governors held veto power over the assemblies, almost immediately leading to political conflict between

16470-496: Was limited to a small population of wealthy men, most of whom were members of the scholar-gentry . Public attitudes towards the elections were generally apathetic, even among those eligible to vote. Corruption, election fraud, and vote buying were common across the country. Potential voters were hesitant to provide election officials with proof of their property holdings, fearing that registration would lead to increased taxation. Turnout greatly varied between provinces and regions, but

16605-589: Was made a first rank princess, a title usually bestowed only on the empress's first-born daughter. However, Cixi avoided giving Prince Gong the absolute political power that princes such as Dorgon exercised during the Shunzhi Emperor 's reign. As one of the first acts of "ruling behind the curtain" from within the Hall of Mental Cultivation , the political and governmental hub during this era, Cixi, nominally along with Ci'an, issued two imperial edicts on behalf of

16740-584: Was one of the few candidates chosen to stay. Among the other chosen candidates were Noble Lady Li of the Tatara clan (who became Consort Li, eventually Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing ) and Concubine Zhen of the Niohuru clan (who became empress consort, eventually Empress Dowager Ci'an ). On 26 June 1852, Lady Yehe Nara left her widowed mother's residence at Xilahutong and entered the Forbidden City and

16875-451: Was placed in the sixth rank of consorts, styled "Noble Lady Lan". On 28 February 1854, Noble Lady Lan was elevated to the fifth rank of consorts and granted the title "Concubine Yi". In 1855, she became pregnant, and on 27 April 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun , Xianfeng's first and only surviving son. On the same day, she was elevated to the fourth rank of consorts as "Consort Yi". In 1857, when her son reached his first birthday, Consort Yi

17010-442: Was postponed due to extremely low rates of Chinese literacy. The public was generally apathetic towards the elections. Only one voting station existed in each electoral district, often many miles apart. Citizens who were eligible through their wealth were often hesitant to give their property value to register, fearing that they would come under target from tax collectors. Preparatory office officials made an effort to emphasis that

17145-484: Was reorganized into a New Army . The imperial government originally planned to establish 500,000 regular troops in the next ten years, but until the end of 1911 (the collapse of the Qing dynasty), only about 190,000 troops had been well trained. An edict on 15 July 1909 was passed that established the Ministry of War to control the army. A report in the summer of 1904 by the Commission for Army reorganisation published

17280-592: Was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s." John K. Fairbank wrote, "That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration." Under the command of Zeng Guofan, the victorious Xiang Army defeated the Taiping rebel army in a hard-fought battle at Tianjing (present-day Nanjing ) in July 1864. Zeng

17415-423: Was rewarded with the title of "Marquess Yiyong, First Class", while his brother Zeng Guoquan , along with Li Hongzhang , Zuo Zongtang and other Han Chinese officers who fought against the Taiping rebels, were rewarded with auspicious decorations and titles. With the Taiping rebel threat receding, Cixi focused her attention on new internal threats to her power. Of special concern was the position of Prince Gong, who

17550-574: Was rumoured that he caught syphilis and became visibly ill. The physicians spread a rumour that Tongzhi had smallpox , and proceeded to give medical treatment accordingly. Within a few weeks, on 13 January 1875, Tongzhi died. His wife followed suit in March. Judging from a modern medical perspective, the onset of syphilis comes in stages, thus the emperor's quick death does not seem to reflect its symptoms. Therefore, most historians maintain that Tongzhi did, in fact, die from smallpox. Regardless, by 1875, Cixi

17685-598: Was scheduled to be completed in 1914. In 1901, the imperial government abolished the test of traditional Chinese Martial and founded the training system for officers. Then, in 1903, the Central Training Command was established to coordinate the training of the national army. In 1901, the imperial government established three arsenals in Hanyang, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. In 1905, the Beiyang Army

17820-550: Was to apply their seals to edicts, a merely mechanical role in a complex bureaucracy. Cixi's ascendancy came at a time of internal chaos and foreign challenges. The effects of the Second Opium War were still hovering over the country, and the Taiping Rebellion continued its seemingly unstoppable advance through China's south, eating up the Qing Empire bit by bit. Internally, both the national bureaucracy and regional authorities were infested with corruption. 1861 happened to be

17955-429: Was to be introduced again in a new manner with rewards for bravery and service, including pensions for the retired, dead and disabled. A western-style system of medical and logistical services was also recommended from the frontline to base hospitals in the interior. The report also called for the standardisation of weapons on a simple durable but modern model of weaponry. The army itself was divided into 3 categories as per

18090-495: Was well received by both Tongzhi and Ci'an. Her personal consultants once warned her to be more agreeable and docile to Cixi, who was truly the one in power. Arute replied, "I am a principal consort, having been carried through the front gate with pomp and circumstance, as mandated by our ancestors. Empress Dowager Cixi was a concubine, and entered our household through a side gate." Since the very beginning of his marriage, Tongzhi proceeded to spend most of his time with his empress at

18225-421: Was working in Beijing during the year of Xingzhen's birth, an indication that she was born in Beijing. The file records the location of her childhood home: Pichai Hutong, Xisipailou , Beijing ( 西四牌樓劈柴胡同 ). Lady Yehe Nara had a sister named Wanzhen and a brother named Guixiang. In 1851, Lady Yehe Nara participated in the selection for wives to the Xianfeng Emperor alongside 60 other candidates. Lady Yehe Nara

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