129-399: Wu Zetian (17 February 624 – 16 December 705), personal name Wu Zhao , was Empress of China from 660 to 705, ruling first through others and later in her own right. She ruled as empress consort through her husband Emperor Gaozong and later as empress dowager through her sons Emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong , from 660 to 690. She subsequently founded and ruled as empress regent of
258-548: A " liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters ( 法師 ) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism ) within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( 道教徒 ; 'follower of Dao'), with
387-503: A Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction
516-481: A bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia . Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism
645-515: A contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before
774-426: A formal ceremony to crown herself as emperor. Empress Wu is considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history due to her strong leadership and effective governance, which made China one of the world's most powerful nations. The importance to history of her tenure includes the major expansion of the Chinese empire, extending it far beyond its previous territorial limits, deep into Central Asia , and engaging in
903-492: A greater extent. From January 665 until the end of his reign, Wu would sit behind a pearl screen behind Gaozong at imperial meetings, and called her own orders "emperor edicts". She even wore the yellow robe of the empire like an emperor, which was extraordinary and unprecedented for an empress. Wu was effectively making the major decisions. After Shangguan Yi's execution, Gaozong increasingly relied on Wu's advice. When chancellors and officials discussed political affairs with him,
1032-815: A key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi ( Master Embracing Simplicity ). The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures. Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled
1161-580: A key feature of the civil service. Wu also had an important impact upon the statuary of the Longmen Grottoes and the "Wordless Stele" at the Qian Mausoleum , as well as the construction of some major buildings and bronze castings that no longer survive. Besides her career as a political leader, Wu also had an active family life. She was a mother of four sons, three of whom also carried the title of emperor, although one held that title only as
1290-497: A network of spies to build a strong intelligence system in the court and throughout the empire, delivering daily reports on current affairs of the empire or opposition to the central state. She also played a key role in reforming the imperial examination system and encouraging capable officials to work in governance to maintain a peaceful and well-governed state. Effectively, these reforms improved her nation's bureaucracy by ensuring that competence, rather than family connections, became
1419-587: A new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day." This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones , which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today. The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty . This tradition
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#17327974845901548-435: A positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction
1677-528: A posthumous honor. One of her grandsons became the controversial Emperor Xuanzong of Tang , whose reign marked the turning point of the Tang dynasty into sharp decline. In Chinese history and literature, Wu Zetian ( Mandarin pronunciation: [ù tsɤ̌ tʰjɛ́n] ) was known by various names and titles. Mention of her in the English language has only increased their number. A difficulty in English translations
1806-537: A principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of daoshi , or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in Chinese folk religion . Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as
1935-417: A rebuke of Chancellor Ji Xu during her reign), she once impressed Taizong with her fortitude: Emperor Taizong had a horse with the name "Lion Stallion", and it was so large and strong that no one could get on its back. I was a lady in waiting attending Emperor Taizong, and I suggested to him, "I only need three things to subordinate it: an iron whip, an iron hammer, and a sharp dagger. I will whip it with
2064-476: A secondary palace, Daming Palace ( 大明宮 ), into Penglai Palace ( 蓬萊宮 ). When Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall ( 含元殿 ), was completed in 663, Gaozong and Wu moved there. It was later renamed Hanyuan Palace. Empress Wang and Consort Xiao continued to appear in her dreams even after this, and therefore, late in Gaozong's reign, he and Wu were often at the eastern capital Luoyang , not at Chang'an. Over
2193-430: A separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin , who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of
2322-573: A series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology , worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created
2451-530: A series of wars on the Korean Peninsula , first allying with Silla against Goguryeo , and then against Silla over the occupation of former Goguryeo territory. Within China, besides the more direct consequences of her struggle to gain and maintain power, Wu's leadership resulted in important effects regarding social class in Chinese society and in relation to state support for Taoism , Buddhism , Confucianism , education and literature. Wu developed
2580-505: A similar nature to all other life. Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching , some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an ancestor and a mother goddess . Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were
2709-424: A succession of senior ministerial posts, including the governorship of Yangzhou , Lizhou, and Jingzhou ( 荊州 ) (modern-day Jiangling County , Hubei ). Wu was encouraged by her parents to read books and pursue her education, an uncommon situation for the women at the time. She read and learned about many topics, such as music, calligraphy, literature, history, politics, and other governmental affairs. At age 14, she
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#17327974845902838-540: A theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty , attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy . Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau . It
2967-596: A vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras ." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu). During this period, Louguan , the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism ) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition
3096-453: Is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals. In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to
3225-562: Is considered a major religion in Taiwan , and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms , both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements . "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao"
3354-542: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Taoism Taoism or Daoism ( / ˈ t aʊ . ɪ z əm / , / ˈ d aʊ . ɪ z əm / ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China , emphasizing harmony with the Tao 道 ( pinyin : dào ; Wade–Giles : tao ). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in
3483-489: Is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" ( sixiang ) and of daojiao with "religion" ( zongjiao )
3612-475: Is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another. Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology ,
3741-598: Is in the Wade-Giles romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao"
3870-488: Is said to be either the name of a prehistoric state in present-day Guangxi or an official of the prehistoric Xia dynasty from the posthumous title of Duke Wu of Song (r. 765–748 BCE), Spring and Autumn period ruler of Song , in present-day Shangqiu , Henan from the posthumous name of Wu Ding king of the Shang dynasty c. 1200 BCE from the personal name of a son of King Ping of Zhou , first king of
3999-470: Is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan . Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c. 100 BCE , referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou . Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or
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4128-652: Is that they tend to specify gender (as in the case of "emperor" versus "empress" or "prince" versus "princess"), whereas, in Classical Chinese , words such as hou ( 后 , "sovereign", "prince", "queen") or huangdi (皇帝 , "imperial supreme ruler", "royal deity") are of grammatically indeterminate gender . In Wu's time, women's birth names were rarely recorded. She changed her name to Wu Zhao after rising to power, often written as 武曌 , ( 曌 has also been written as 瞾 on occasion, and both are derivatives of 照 , which may be her original name), with 瞾 being one of
4257-431: Is the same; that is, /daʊ/ , much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers. The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms. The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as
4386-478: Is traditionally used to translate daoshi /taoshih ( 道士 ; 'master of the Tao';), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as
4515-599: The Daozang . The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school. In the 12th century ,
4644-522: The Zhuangzi , and the Tao Te Ching . The Tao Te Ching , attributed to Laozi , is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that
4773-723: The Eastern Zhou dynasty Notable people [ edit ] Wu Zetian (武則天 ; 624–705), the only Empress Regnant in China's history Wu Chengsi (武承嗣; d. 698), Prince Xuan of Wei (魏宣王), nephew of Wu Zetian Wu Youji (武攸暨; d. 712), Prince Zhongjian of Ding (定忠簡王), husband of Princess Taiping Wu Song (武松), legendary hero from the Chinese classic novel Outlaws of the Marsh Maggie Wu (武卫; born 1969), Chinese business executive and Chief Financial Officer of Alibaba Group Wu Yuxiang (武禹襄; 1812–1880), tai chi teacher and government official active during
4902-591: The Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped " ghosts and gods " and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience , monasticism , and asceticism . Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty . The Quanzhen school
5031-747: The School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases ), and the Chinese classics , especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu . Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ( xian ), and practices for exorcism . Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from
5160-526: The Sui dynasty . During the final years of Emperor Yang of Sui , Li Yuan ( 李淵 ) (who went on to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang) stayed in the Wu household many times and became close to the Wu family while holding appointments in both Hedong and Taiyuan. After Li Yuan overthrew Emperor Yang, he was generous to the Wu family, giving them grain, land, clothing and wealth. Once the Tang dynasty was established, Wu Shihou held
5289-819: The Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong , the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains ) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ( Wudang quan ). Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn , "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced
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5418-753: The Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary. The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters , which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for
5547-471: The Wu Zhou dynasty of China from 690 to 705. She was the only female sovereign in the history of China widely regarded as legitimate . Under her 45-year reign, China grew larger, becoming one of the great powers of the world, its culture and economy were revitalized, and corruption in the court was reduced. She was eventually removed from power during a coup and died a few months later. In early life, Wu
5676-614: The Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among
5805-489: The Zizhi Tongjian : "Emperor Gaozong sat enthroned before his ministers as usual while they counseled him, Wu would be parked behind a screen, listening in. It does not matter how vital or insignificant the issue is. The great power of the empire all devolved on the empress. Promotion or demotion, life or death, were settled by her word, the emperor sat with folded arms." She and Gaozong were thereafter referred to as
5934-495: The empress dowager and regent and power fell completely and solely into her hands. She proceeded to depose Emperor Zhongzong for displaying independence and held onto power even more firmly thereafter. She then had her youngest son, Ruizong, made emperor. She was absolute ruler not only in substance but in appearance. She presided alone over imperial gatherings, prevented Ruizong from taking any active role in governance, and forbade all meetings with him. In 690, she had Ruizong yield
6063-414: The eunuch Wang Fusheng ( 王伏勝 ) reported this to Gaozong, angering him further. He consulted the chancellor Shangguan Yi , who suggested that he depose Wu. He had Shangguan draft an edict. But as Shangguan was doing so, Wu received news of what was happening. She went to the emperor to plead her case just as he was holding the edict that Shangguan had drafted. Gaozong could not bear to depose her and blamed
6192-1944: The surname Wu . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. v t e 100 most common family names in mainland China (2020) 1–25 Wáng 王 Lǐ 李 Zhāng 张/張 Liú 刘/劉 Chén 陈/陳 Yáng 杨/杨 Huáng 黄/黃 Zhào 赵 Wú 吴/吳 Zhōu 周 Xú 徐 Sūn 孙/孫 Mǎ 马/馬 Zhū 朱 Hú 胡 Guō 郭 Hé 何 Lín 林 Luó 罗/羅 Gāo 高 Zhèng 郑/鄭 Liáng 梁 Xiè 谢/謝 Sòng 宋 Táng 唐 26–50 Xǔ 许/許 Hán 韩/韓 Dèng 邓/鄧 Féng 冯/馮 Cáo 曹 Péng 彭 Zēng 曾 Xiāo 萧/蕭 Tián 田 Dǒng 董 Pān 潘 Yuán 袁 Cài 蔡 Jiǎng 蒋/蔣 Yú 余 Yú 于 Dù 杜 Yè 叶/葉 Chéng 程 Wèi 魏 Sū 苏/蘇 Lǚ 吕/呂 Dīng 丁 Rén 任 Lú 卢/盧 51–75 Yáo 姚 Shěn 沈/沉 Zhōng 钟/鍾 Jiāng 姜 Cuī 崔 Tán 谭/譚 Lù 陆/陸 Fàn 范 Wāng 汪 Liào 廖 Shí 石 Jīn 金 Wéi 韦/韋 Jiǎ 贾/賈 Xià 夏 Fù 傅 Fāng 方 Zōu 邹/鄒 Xióng 熊 Bái 白 Mèng 孟 Qín 秦 Qiū 邱 Hóu 侯 Jiāng 江 76–100 Yǐn 尹 Xuē 薛 Yán 阎/閻 Duàn 段 Léi 雷 Lóng 龙/龍 Lí 黎 Shǐ 史 Táo 陶 Hè 贺/賀 Máo 毛 Hǎo 郝 Gù 顾/顧 Gōng 龚/龔 Shào 邵 Wàn 万/萬 Qín 覃 Wǔ 武 Qián 钱/錢 Dài 戴 Yán 严/嚴 Mò 莫 Kǒng 孔 Xiàng 向 Cháng 常 Related Hundred Family Surnames List of common Chinese surnames 101–200 Most Common Family Names in mainland China Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wu_(surname_武)&oldid=1178333643 " Category : Surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description
6321-422: The three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period ( c. 450 – c. 300 BCE ), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over
6450-608: The " three vehicles " of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns ; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which
6579-576: The "Two Saints" ( 二聖 , Er Sheng ) both inside the palace and in the empire. The Later Jin historian Liu Xu , in Old Book of Tang , commented: Wu (surname %E6%AD%A6) Wǔ is a Chinese surname. It is pronounced Mo in Cantonese. In Vietnamese is written Vũ or Võ . As a Chinese word, it carries the meanings "martial", "military", "martial arts". Origins [ edit ] from Wu Luo (武羅), which
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#17327974845906708-555: The Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing , yin-yang thought , as well as Mohist , " Legalist ", and " Confucian " ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism". Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye ,
6837-527: The Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Another important early Taoist movement
6966-522: The Lady Yang, wept bitterly when saying farewell to her, but she responded, "How do you know that it is not my fortune to meet the Son of Heaven ?" Lady Yang reportedly then understood her ambitions, and therefore stopped crying. But Consort Wu did not appear to be much favored by Emperor Taizong, though it appears that she did have sexual relations with him at one point. According to her own account (given in
7095-592: The Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin ) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which
7224-529: The People's Republic of China Wu Yi (武艺; born 1990), also known as Philip Wu and Philip Lau, Chinese pop singer References [ edit ] ^ Acquired surname: Wu Zetian's surname at birth is unknown. ^ Patrick Hanks, Peter McClure, and Richard Coates, The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with
7353-533: The Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality . Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation , astrology , qigong , feng shui , and internal alchemy . A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation , a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action , naturalness , simplicity , and
7482-672: The Warring States era phenomena of the wu ( Chinese shamans ) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity"). Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in
7611-403: The child. Wang lacked an alibi and was unable to clear her name. Scientifically credible forensic pathology information about the death of Wu's daughter does not exist, and scholars lack concrete evidence about her death. However, scholars have many theories and speculations. Because traditional folklore tends to portray Wu as a power-hungry woman unconcerned about whom she hurt or what she did,
7740-527: The coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the " Way of Great Peace ", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion , and after years of bloody war, they were crushed. The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace
7869-423: The court, a position with similar authority to the emperor's, until 683. As a young woman entering Gaozong's harem, Wu competed with Empress Wang and Pure Consort Xiao for the emperor's affection, and eventually expelled and killed them. After her wedding to Gaozong in 655, her rise to power was swift. A strong, charismatic, vengeful, ambitious, well-educated woman who enjoyed her husband's absolute affection, Wu
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#17327974845907998-436: The early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu . Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements. During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE)
8127-639: The early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from
8256-601: The emperor's sole use, as a monarch or co-ruler in their own right. The Wu family clan originated in Wenshui County , Bingzhou (an ancient name of the city of Taiyuan , Shanxi ). Wu Zetian's birthplace is not documented in preserved historical literature and remains disputed. Some scholars argue that Wu was born in Wenshui , some that it was Lizhou ( 利州 ) (modern-day Guangyuan in Sichuan ), while others insist she
8385-525: The emperor. But the cause of death of her first two children is still in question. Gaozong became emperor at the age of 21. He was not the first choice, as he was inexperienced and frequently incapacitated with a sickness that caused him spells of dizziness. Gaozong was made heir to the empire only due to the disgrace of his two older brothers. On or after the anniversary of Emperor Taizong's death, Gaozong went to Ganye Temple to offer incense to Buddha. When he and Consort Wu saw each other, they both wept. This
8514-547: The episode on Shangguan. As both Shangguan and Wang had served on Li Zhong's staff, Wu had Xu falsely accuse Shangguan, Wang, and Li Zhong of planning treason. Shangguan, Wang, and Shangguan's son Shangguan Tingzhi ( 上官庭芝 ) were executed, while Li Zhong was forced to commit suicide. Shangguan Tingzhi's daughter Shangguan Wan'er , then an infant, and her mother, Lady Zheng, became slaves in the inner palace. After Shangguan Wan'er grew up, she became Empress Wu's trusted secretary. After that point, Gaozong accepted Wu's participation to
8643-499: The execution order reached his location. It was said that after this time, no official dared to criticize the emperor or empress. In order to complete the social promotion of her family, she had the Wu clan listed among those of first importance in the registers of the "Great Families" ( 姓氏錄 , xìngshìlù) by changing the "Book of Clans" to "Books of Names"; against imperial traditions. In late 659, she proposed to Emperor Gaozong that Palace Exam be opened to establish talented people from
8772-576: The extraordinary and unprecedented title of Chenfei (宸妃, meaning the Cosmic Consort), and promote her over all other imperial consorts directly under Wang herself. Han and fellow chancellor Lai Ji both opposed on the grounds that the title was unprecedented, and so Gaozong did not carry it out. Of course, the evidence shows that he probably granted this title, but it is still unclear. In the summer of 655, Wu accused Wang and her mother, Lady Liu, of using witchcraft. In response, Gaozong barred Liu from
8901-535: The faithfulness of Han and Lai in opposing the unprecedented Chenfei title. The real purpose was to show that she remembered that they had offended her, and it made Han and Lai apprehensive that she was aware of their opposition of her. Han offered to resign soon thereafter, an offer that Emperor Gaozong did not accept. In 656, on the advice of Xu Jingzong, Emperor Gaozong deposed Consort Liu's son Li Zhong from being his heir apparent. He changed Li Zhong's status to Prince of Liang and designated Empress Wu's son, Li Hong as
9030-477: The first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan ). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ( 2nd century BCE ) Huang–Lao movement, which
9159-460: The first thing he asked was: "Have you discussed this with Empress Wu? What is her opinion?" If she had clear opinions, he would make a decision based on them, and when he was feeling unpleasant, he told the chancellors and officials, "I'm not feeling well. Go to the Empress for work." As a result, imperial powers primarily fell into her hands. According to Song dynasty historian Sīmǎ Guāng 司马光 in
9288-574: The following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism , Mohism , Confucianism , various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals . Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon
9417-420: The girl's death, and as a result, tried to remove Wang from her position. Because of the child's death, an angry Gaozong also wanted to depose Wang and replace her with Wu. But first he needed to make sure that he had the support of the government chancellors. So Gaozong met with his uncle Zhangsun Wuji , the head chancellor. During the meeting, Gaozong repeatedly brought up Wang's childlessness. Childlessness
9546-553: The helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor." Wu presided over the court with the emperor, and even held court independently when the emperor was unwell. She was given charge of the Heirloom Seal of the Realm , implying that her perusal and consent were necessary before any document or order received legal validity. Gaozong sought her views on all matters before making major decisions. Wu
9675-507: The imperial consorts' titles were temporarily changed to be devoid of feminine and superficial quality. Her motive was probably to eliminate female rivals. In the same year, Wu selected military generals to attack Goguryeo. During these years, due to favors from Gaozong and Wu, her ally Li Yifu had been exceedingly powerful, and grew particularly corrupt. In 663, after reports of Li Yifu's corruption were made to Gaozong, Gaozong had Liu Xiangdao and Li Ji investigate. They found him guilty. Li Yifu
9804-409: The inhabitants". Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside". Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in
9933-589: The invented characters by Wu. Wu was her patronymic surname, which she retained, according to traditional Chinese practice, after marriage to Gaozong, of the Li family. Emperor Taizong gave her the art name Wu Mei ( 武媚 ), meaning "glamorous". Thus, Chinese people often refer to her as Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang ( 武媚娘 ) when they write about her youth, as Wu Hou ( 武后 ) when referring to her as empress consort and empress dowager, and as Wu Zetian ( 武則天 ) when referring to her as empress regnant. During her life, and posthumously, Wu
10062-427: The iron whip. If it does not submit, I will hammer its head with the iron hammer. If it still does not submit, I will cut its throat with the dagger." Emperor Taizong praised my bravery. Do you really believe that you are qualified to dirty my dagger? When Taizong died in 649, his youngest son, Li Zhi, whose mother was the main wife Wende , succeeded him as Emperor Gaozong . Li Zhi had had an affair with Wu when Taizong
10191-481: The late Qing dynasty Wu Changshun (武长顺; born 1954), former police chief of the municipality of Tianjin, China Wu Dawei (武大伟; born 1946), former special representative for Korean Peninsula Affairs and former Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China Wu Lei (武磊; born 1991), Chinese footballer Wu Weihua (武维华; born 1956), chair of the Jiusan Society , a minority party in
10320-608: The latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during the Tang dynasty (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities , often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing
10449-433: The low-level officials Wei Jifang ( 韋季方 ) and Li Chao ( 李巢 ). Zhangsun was exiled and, later in the year, was forced to commit suicide in exile. Xu further implicated Chu, Liu, Han, and Yu Zhining in the plot as well. Chu, who had died in 658, was posthumously stripped of his titles, and his sons Chu Yanfu ( 褚彥甫 ) and Chu Yanchong ( 褚彥沖 ) were executed. Orders were also issued to execute Liu and Han, although Han died before
10578-609: The lower classes as government officials. This reduced the power of the aristocracy. In 660, Li Zhong, Gaozong's first-born son (to consort Liu) also was targeted. Li Zhong had feared that he would be next and had sought out advice of fortune tellers. Wu had him exiled and placed under house arrest. After removing those who opposed her rise, she had more power to influence politics, and Emperor Gaozong took full advantage of her advice on petitions made by officials and talking about state affairs. In 660, Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu toured Bian Prefecture (modern-day Taiyuan), and Empress Wu had
10707-476: The meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing
10836-689: The meeting, Chu vehemently opposed deposing Wang, while Zhangsun and Yu showed their disapproval by silence. Chancellors Han Yuan and Lai Ji also opposed the move. When Gaozong asked Li Ji again he responded, "This is your family matter, Your Imperial Majesty. Why ask anyone else?" Gaozong therefore became resolved. He demoted Chu to commandant at Tan Prefecture (roughly modern Changsha , Hunan ), and then deposed both Wang and Xiao. He placed them under arrest and made Wu empress. Later that year, Gaozong showed signs of considering their release. Because of this, Wang and Xiao were killed on Empress Wu's orders. After their deaths, they often haunted Wu's dreams over
10965-535: The mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism . Thus, during this period,
11094-496: The most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss. During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that
11223-481: The most popular theory is that Wu killed her own child in order to accuse Wang. Other schools of thought argue that Wang indeed killed the child out of jealousy and hatred of Wu. The third argument is that the child died of asphyxiation or crib death . The ventilation systems of the time were nonexistent or of poor quality, and the lack of ventilation combined with using coal as a heating method could have led to carbon monoxide poisoning . In any case, Wu blamed Wang for
11352-748: The opportunity to invite her old neighbors and relatives to a feast. Later that year, Emperor Gaozong began to suffer from an illness that carried the symptoms of painful headaches and loss of vision, generally thought to be hypertension-related. He began to have Empress Wu make rulings on daily petitions and proposals made by officials. It was said that Empress Wu had quick reactions and understood both literature and history, and therefore, she made correct rulings, and Emperor Gaozong, with her ability, no longer paid much attention to governmental affairs, and over time became more and more dependent on her advice, delegating his duties to her. Thereafter, her authority rivaled Emperor Gaozong's. From this point on, Empress Wu became
11481-420: The palace and demoted Wang's uncle, Liu Shi. Meanwhile, a faction of officials began to form around Wu, including Li Yifu , Xu, Cui Yixuan ( 崔義玄 ), and Yuan Gongyu ( 袁公瑜 ). Once in the autumn of 655, Gaozong summoned the chancellors Zhangsun, Li Ji , Yu Zhining , and Chu Suiliang to the palace. Chu had deduced that the summons were about changing the empress. Li Ji claimed illness and refused to attend. At
11610-438: The palace. (Some modern historians dispute this traditional account. Some think that Wu never left the imperial palace and might have had an affair with Gaozong while Taizong was still alive.) Wu soon overtook Xiao as Gaozong's favorite. In 652, she gave birth to her first child, a son named Li Hong . In 653, she gave birth to another son, Li Xián . Neither of these sons was in contention to be Gaozong's heir, because Gaozong, at
11739-536: The position of emperor. Since the time of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC), the Emperor of China using the title huangdi ( 皇帝 , translated as "emperor" or "empress (regnant)" as appropriate), Wu was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title huangdi . Her tenure as de facto ruler of China and official regent of the Tang dynasty (first through her husband and then through her sons, from 665 to 690)
11868-401: The properties of plants and geology , diviners , early environmentalists , tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities. Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in
11997-624: The religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , such as their use of divination , ancestor worship , and the idea of Heaven ( Tian ) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and Livia Kohn , Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism , Confucianism , Legalist theorists (like Shen Buhai and Han Fei , which speak of wu wei ),
12126-492: The remainder of her life. After Taizong's death, Gaozong met her at the death anniversary of Taizong when he was offering incense . At the time, Consort Xiao and Empress Wang were fighting for favoredness of Gaozong, and Wang asked Gaozong to bring Wu back into the palace, hoping to divert Gaozong's attention. Gaozong agreed and gave Wu the title Lady of Bright Deportment ( 昭儀 ). Soon, Gaozong became enamored with Wu, and both Wang and Xiao lost favor. By early 650, Consort Wu
12255-500: The request of officials influenced by Wang and her uncle (the chancellor Liu Shi ), had designated his eldest son Li Zhong as his heir. Li Zhong's mother, Consort Liu, was of lowly birth. Wang did this in order to receive Liu's gratitude. By 654, both Wang and Xiao had lost favor with Gaozong, and these two former romantic rivals joined forces against Wu, but to no avail. For example, as a sign of his love for Wu, Gaozong conferred posthumous honors on her father, Wu Shiyue , in 654. In
12384-532: The rest of Gaozong's reign, he and Wu often took up residence at the eastern capital Luoyang and only infrequently spent time in Chang'an . In 655, Wu became Tang Gaozong's new empress consort ( 皇后 , húanghòu ). Empress Wu was a powerful force in the world of politics, and had great influence over the Emperor. After Empress Wu's ascension, one of the first things she did was to submit a petition ostensibly praising
12513-454: The rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong , who wrote
12642-422: The same year, Wu gave birth to a daughter. But her daughter died shortly after birth, with evidence suggesting deliberate strangulation . The evidence include allegations made by Wu herself, and she accused Wang of murder. Wang was accused of having been seen near the child's room, with corroborating testimony by alleged eyewitnesses. Gaozong was led to believe that Wang, motivated by jealousy, had most likely killed
12771-414: The sense of empress consort and empress regnant . Generally, the monarch was male and his chief spouse was given a title such as huanghou ( 皇后 ), often translated as "empress" or more specifically "empress consort". Upon the emperor's death, the surviving empress consort could become empress dowager , sometimes wielding considerable political power as regent during the minority of the (male) heir to
12900-730: The status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books. The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門 ) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple . Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of
13029-451: The throne to her and established the Zhou dynasty. She ruled as emperor until 705. She was regarded as ruthless in her endeavors to grab power, and was believed by traditional historians to have killed her own children. This was later proven false; these rumors seem to have surfaced 400 years after her death, likely due to the belief in ancient China that a woman was unsuited to hold the power of
13158-805: The title of Prince of Dai and crown prince (that is, Heir Apparent). Soon after, Empress Wu became dominant at court, installing officials who favored her ascension in chancellor posts. In 657, Empress Wu persuaded Emperor Gaozong to split the empire into two capitals and make Luoyang the capital alongside Chang'an . In 657, Empress Wu and her allies began reprisals against officials who had opposed her ascension. She first had Xu and Li Yifu, who were by now chancellors, falsely accuse Han Yuan and Lai Ji of being complicit with Chu Suiliang in planning treason. The three of them, along with Liu Shi, were demoted to being prefects of remote prefectures, with provisions that they would never be allowed to return to Chang'an. In 659, she had Xu accuse Zhangsun Wuji of plotting treason with
13287-453: The undisputed power behind the throne until the end of his reign. Slowly, Gaozong became aware of Wu's increasing power, but he could not stop her. In 661, Empress Wu asked to forbid women from all over the empire to be haiku (entertainers who perform burlesque ), and Emperor Gaozong agreed and issued an edict. In April, Gaozong wanted to conquer Goguryeo himself, but surrendered at the urging of Wu and his ministers. In 662, at Wu's suggestion,
13416-573: The western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and Tibetan Buddhism . Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui . During
13545-499: The years, Emperor Gaozong's illness had worsened, and Empress Wu's influence continued to grow and was fully established in the political arena. By 664, Wu was said to be interfering so much in the empire's governance that she was angering Gaozong with her controlling behavior. Furthermore, she had engaged the Taoist sorcerer Guo Xingzhen ( 郭行真 ) in using witchcraft—an act prohibited by regulations, which led to Empress Wang's downfall—and
13674-413: The years. Wu came to believe their spirits were after her. For this reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling a secondary palace, Daming Palace (大明宮), into Penglai Palace (蓬萊宮). When Penglai Palace's main hall, Hanyuan Hall (含元殿), was completed in 663, Gaozong and Wu moved there. It was later renamed Hanyuan Palace, yet Empress Wang and Consort Xiao still continued to appear in her dreams. Therefore, for
13803-443: Was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar , lead , mercury , and realgar , as well as ritual and purificatory practices. After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian - Legalist tradition. The Three Kingdoms period saw
13932-792: Was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian , a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day. In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in Northern China took inspiration from Tibetan cultural practices, Chinese folk religion (often from
14061-611: Was a concubine of Emperor Gaozong, and was given the title Zhaoyi ( 昭儀 ) (Lady of Bright Deportment, the highest-ranking of the nine concubines in the second rank). She progressed rapidly, earning the title of huanghou ( 皇后 ) (empress consort, the highest rank and position a woman held in the empire), and gradually gained immeasurable influence and unprecedented authority over the empire's governance throughout Gaozong's reign. Over time, she came to control most major and key decisions made during Gaozong's reign, and presided over imperial gatherings. After Gaozong died in 683, Empress Wu became
14190-502: Was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism
14319-474: Was a sufficient excuse to depose Wang, but Zhangsun repeatedly found ways to divert the conversation. Subsequent visits made by Wu's mother, Lady Yang, and an official allied with Wu, Xu Jingzong , to seek support from Zhangsun were met with disappointment. Early in 655 he wanted to give Wu (who carried the sixth-highest rank among imperial consorts, Zhaoyi (昭儀, meaning the lady of the Bright Section))
14448-500: Was also granted certain honors and privileges not enjoyed by any Chinese empresses before or since. After Gaozong's death, Wu as empress dowager and regent held power completely and solely, used absolute power more forcefully and violently than before, and suppressed her overt and covert opponents. Seven years later, Wu seized the throne and began the Zhou dynasty, becoming the only empress regnant in Chinese history. On Emperor Gaozong's death in 683, rather than entering into retirement (as
14577-457: Was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on
14706-463: Was awarded various official titles. Both hou ( 后 ) and huangdi ( 皇帝 ) are titles (modifications, or added characters to hou are of lesser importance). Born Wu Zhao, she is not properly known as "Wu Hou" (Empress Wu) until receiving this title in 655, nor is she properly known as "Wu Zetian", her regnal name, until 690, when she took the title Emperor. Various Chinese titles have been translated into English as "empress", including "empress" in both
14835-410: Was born in the imperial capital of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an ). Wu Zetian was born in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. In the same year, a total eclipse of the sun was visible across China. Her father, Wu Shiyue , worked in the timber business and the family was relatively well-off. Her mother was from the powerful Yang family, distant relatives of the imperial family of
14964-536: Was called the Northern Celestial masters , and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing ( Scripture of Western Ascension ). During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on
15093-424: Was customary for royal widows), or not interfering in the government (according to the emperor's law, when he reaches the age of 17, he must rule by himself); Wu broke with tradition and took acquisition of complete power, refusing to allow any of her sons to rule. She took the throne in 690 by officially changing the name of the country from Tang to Zhou, changing the name of the royal family from Li to Wu, and holding
15222-486: Was not without precedent in Chinese history, but she broke precedent when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou ( 周 ) (interrupting the Tang dynasty ), ruling personally under the name Sacred and Divine Huangdi ( 聖神皇帝 ), and variations thereof, from 690 to 705. Wu Zetian and Empress Dowager Liu of the Song dynasty are said to be the only women in Chinese history to have worn a yellow robe, ordinarily reserved for
15351-416: Was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor . Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated
15480-459: Was removed from his post, exiled, and never returned to Chang'an. Wu is said to have been reluctant to accept corruption and therefore did not defend Li Yifu and her only role in Gaozong's decision was to prevent Li Yifu's execution. Over the years, Empress Wu had repeatedly seen Empress Wang and Consort Xiao in her dreams as they were after death, and she came to believe their spirits were after her. For this reason, Emperor Gaozong started remodeling
15609-489: Was seen by Gaozong's wife, Empress Wang . At that time, Gaozong did not favor Wang. Instead, he favored his concubine Pure Consort Xiao . Furthermore, Wang had no children while Xiao had one son ( Li Sujie ) and two daughters (Princesses Yiyang and Xuancheng). Wang, seeing that Gaozong was still impressed by Wu's beauty, hoped that the arrival of a new concubine would divert the emperor from Xiao. Therefore, she secretly told Wu to stop shaving her hair and later welcomed her to
15738-418: Was still alive. Taizong had 14 sons, including three by his beloved Empress Zhangsun (601–636), but none with Consort Wu. Thus, according to the custom by which consorts of deceased emperors who had not produced children were permanently confined to a monastic institution after the emperor's death, Wu was consigned to Ganye Temple ( 感業寺 ) with the expectation that she would serve as a Buddhist nun there for
15867-496: Was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the " three teachings " (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure
15996-418: Was taken to be an imperial concubine (lesser wife) of Emperor Taizong of Tang . It was there that she became a type of secretary. This opportunity allowed her to continue to pursue her education. She was given the title of cairen ( 才人 ), the title for one of the consorts with the 5th rank in Tang's nine-rank system for imperial officials, nobles, and consorts. When she was summoned to the palace, her mother,
16125-508: Was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism. Perhaps
16254-430: Was the concubine of Emperor Taizong . After his death, she married his ninth son and successor, Emperor Gaozong, officially becoming Gaozong's huanghou ( 皇后 ), or empress consort, the highest-ranking of the wives, in 655. Wu had considerable political power even before becoming empress consort, and began to control the court after her appointment. After Gaozong's debilitating stroke in 660, she became administrator of
16383-471: Was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming. The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety ". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ( bigu ), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to
16512-425: Was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism . Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding
16641-432: Was the most powerful and influential woman at court during a period when the Tang dynasty was at the peak of its glory. Wu was more decisive and proactive than her husband, and historians consider her to have been the real power behind the throne during Gaozong's reign for more than 20 years until his death. She was partially in control of power from November 660, and totally from January 665. History records that she "was at
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