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162-487: Gostynin has a long and rich history, which dates back to the early Middle Ages . In the 6th century, a Slavic gord existed north of contemporary town, on a hill located on the left bank of the Skrwa Lewa river, along a merchant trail. In the 12th century, the settlement found itself near the border between the provinces of Mazovia and Kuyavia . In c. 1240, Gostynin was expanded by Duke Konrad I of Masovia , and in

324-736: A forced labor camp operated in the area from January 1942 until January 1945. In 1943, 31 members of the Polish resistance were sentenced by the Germans in Dresden , 24 of them to death and executed there. On 19 January 1945, the Red Army arrived in Kutno, ending the German occupation , and the town was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which remained in power until

486-421: A few families and still others lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more of those systems. Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to

648-638: A green bulrush. The Battle of the Bzura river took place from 9 to 12 September 1939 during the German invasion of Poland , which started World War II . On 9 September the Poznań Army ( Armia Poznań ) operational group, led by General Edmund Knoll-Kownacki , attacked the German 8th Army led by General Johannes Blaskowitz . On 11 September Poland's Pomorze Army reinforced the Polish troops in battle. At first,

810-601: A king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the Kingdom of the Lombards . The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. Slavs settled in Central and Eastern Europe and

972-465: A lesson and the presence of locals at the execution was compulsory; even the families of the executed were there. On 19 March 1942, the ghetto was closed. All Jews, in alphabetical order, were deported to Koło and then to the Chełmno extermination camp . The 6,000 Jewish inhabitants of Kutno were killed there, while elder people who had been ghetto administrators were killed in Kutno itself. Additionally,

1134-567: A powerful lord. Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. Roman temples were converted into Christian churches and city walls remained in use. In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for

1296-466: A practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, Jerome (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading Cicero than the Bible . By the 6th century, Gregory of Tours (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning shorthand . By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in

1458-525: A result of the war 15% of the town was destroyed. In 1946, a transit camp for Polish orphans repatriated from the Soviet Union was established in the town. From 1975 to 1998, it was administratively located in the Płock Voivodship . The officially protected distinctive traditional dish of the town and its surroundings is Gostynin fried mushrooms ( grzyby smażone gostynińskie ), as designated by

1620-538: A result, ancient gord, located on the left bank of the river declined. Siemowit IV expanded the castle, making it his favorite residence. Władysław II Jagiełło visited Gostynin twice (1414, 1419). Siemowit IV died here in 1426, and after his death, the complex was rebuilt, with a wooden chapel added to it in 1439. After childless deaths of two last dukes of Płock ( Siemowit VI ) and Władysław II of Płock , in 1462 Gostynin’s residents welcomed King Casimir IV Jagiellon , who confirmed all town’s privileges, and attached it to

1782-474: A small foothold in southern Spain. Justinian's reconquests have been criticised by historians for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the early Muslim conquests , but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult. In the Eastern Empire

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1944-612: A trade and industry center. Directly before and during the period of the January Uprising , Kutno was the seat of the head of the Gostynin province. During the January Uprising, clashes between Polish insurgents and Russian troops took place in Kutno on 1–2 July and 8 August 1863. In 1867, Kutno district was formed. This state endured until World War I outbreak. In 1886, on the place of the former Gothic church,

2106-446: Is located on the edge of four historical lands. Greater Poland , Kuyavia , Masovia , and Łęczyca . It is located in what is virtually the center of Poland , at a point where geographical and historical borders, as well as in the crossing of communication lines, are of major importance to the development of the city. Kutno has maintained the administrative units of a town (Districts, housing developments ), although certain parts of

2268-672: Is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Christopher Columbus 's first voyage to the Americas in 1492, or the Protestant Reformation in 1517 are sometimes used. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period. For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King Ferdinand II in 1516,

2430-485: Is similar to that of the entire lowland region of Poland . The temperature is influenced by continental and oceanic airflow patterns. Kutno is in the lowest zone of precipitation in Poland . It averages 550 mm (21.65 in) per year, but this can be significantly lower in some years. This is a problem for Kutno, exacerbated by low forest cover and intensive agriculture in the area. Kutno has about five storms during

2592-531: Is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: classical antiquity , the medieval period, and the modern period . The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early , High , and Late Middle Ages . Population decline , counterurbanisation , the collapse of centralized authority, invasions, and mass migrations of tribes , which had begun in Late Antiquity , continued into

2754-586: Is the part of Middle– Masovia macro region. At the south of Kutno plain, Kutno straddles the boundary of the Łowicko – Błońska plain, which belongs to the same region and the Kłodawa Upland plain, which spreads in the west and is counted in the southern Greater Poland . To the north of the Przedecz – Gostynin line Kujawskie lakeland begins, which is included in the Greater Poland lakeland. Kutno

2916-539: The fyrd , which were led by the local elites. In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the crossbow , which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages. Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond

3078-717: The Alans , Vandals , and Suevi crossed into Gaul ; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into modern-day Spain. The Migration Period began, when various peoples, initially largely Germanic peoples , moved across Europe. The Franks , Alemanni , and the Burgundians all ended up in northern Gaul while the Angles , Saxons , and Jutes settled in Britain , and

3240-529: The Benedictine Rule for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an abbot . Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation. They were

3402-697: The Carolingian dynasty , briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east, and Saracens from the south. During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and

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3564-531: The Desert Fathers of Egypt and Syria . Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism , which was pioneered by Pachomius (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through hagiographical literature such as the Life of Anthony . Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) wrote

3726-585: The Fall of Communism in the end of the 1980s. Cultural institutions resumed activity during first years after the liberation. Firstly, posts that had existed before 1939 were reopened. In June 1945 the Kutno District Public Library was opened. Thanks to donations by the public and the regaining of books that had been kept during the War, the library's collection grew rapidly. The public library

3888-584: The Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced. Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the Classical Latin of

4050-721: The Katyn massacre in April–May 1940 or died in Soviet camps. Subsequently, the Germans created a ghetto in Kutno on 15 June 1940. The entire area of a former sugar factory ("Hortensja" or "Konstancja" according to various sources) was surrounded by barbed wire. On the first day, the Poles were forbidden to leave their houses, while the Jews were forced to take all their belongings and proceed to

4212-566: The Kingdom of Poland . From 1462 until 1793, Gostynin was part of Rawa Voivodeship , in which it was the seat of both a Land , and a county . Gostynin continued to prosper - in the period known as the Polish Golden Age , it had 265 houses, inn, mills and a brewery (as for 1564). In 1612, Russian Tsar Vasili IV died at the Gostynin castle, in which he had been kept with two brothers since 1611. The period prosperity ended during

4374-822: The Kutno Rose Festival takes place at the Kutno House of Culture, which has long been a center of cultural events in Kutno. In 1990 formula of the fair has been changed as well as its name: from The "Rose Fair" to " The Rose Festival " In 1996 International Little League Baseball Tournament took place in Kutno. Since that time Kutno is the world-famous seat of the European Little League Baseball Center. On 18 August 1998 Higher School of Economics has been opened in Kutno in 7th Lelewel St. In 1999 because of an administrative resolution , Kutno district once again become part of

4536-714: The Macedonian dynasty . Commerce revived and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–976) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance . Writers such as John Geometres ( fl. early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works. Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in

4698-487: The Marshal Piłsudski square Polish – Soviet brotherhood was constructed, depicting two persons: Red Army soldier and People's Army of Poland soldier shaking hands with each other. After the monument had been constructed incidents such as vandalism and defacing it with paint by local high school students occurred. They were part of the group called "Bloody Hawk" ("Krwawy Jastrząb"). In 1968 Kazimierz Jóźwiak, who

4860-486: The Medieval Warm Period climate change allowed crop yields to increase. Manorialism , the organisation of peasants into villages that owed rent and labour services to the nobles , and feudalism , the political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rent from lands and manors , were two of the ways society was organized in

5022-777: The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Poland . Middle Ages In the history of Europe , the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the Post-classical period of global history . It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and transitioned into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery . The Middle Ages

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5184-719: The Russian and the German . The Russians lost the battle, and the loss of Kutno provided the Germans with a direct access to Warsaw . In 1915, a local parish priest Franciszek Pruski was executed by a firing squad. A plaque commemoratinf this event has been placed in the St. John the Baptist church. Many Kutno inhabitants took part in the Polish- Bolshevik War. They also fought in the Siberian Division . After

5346-462: The Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660), after which only 20 houses were left in the whole town. Gostynin never recovered: it was burned by Russians in 1772, during Bar Confederation , and in 1777, the number of houses was only 43. By 1797, Gostynin had 89 houses, three churches, inn, brewery, three mills, sawmill and a wooden town hall In 1793, following the second partition of Poland , Gostynin

5508-573: The Treaties of Tilsit , Kutno became part of the Duchy of Warsaw . An 1808 fire, most likely set by Napoleon's army, destroyed 180 houses. In 1809 Kutno was visited by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski . After 1815, the area was incorporated into the Congress Kingdom of Poland . In 1826, the first town map was published due to the planned rebuilding of the town. In 1826, Fryderyk Chopin travelled through

5670-524: The Łódź Voivodeship . During the invasion of Poland in 1939, Polish armies under General Tadeusz Kutrzeba conducted an offensive in and around Kutno, that was later named the Battle of the Bzura . Based on its central location and the intersection of multiple rail lines, Kutno is an important railroad junction in Poland. Two main lines cross there ( Łódź – Toruń and Warsaw – Poznań – Berlin ). Another connection also starts in Kutno, which connects

5832-534: The Łódź province after 24 years. In 2001, Królewska St. and Marshal Józef Piłsudski Square were renovated. As a result of decisions made in the 1970s, industry investments began being located in the eastern part of Kutno - Sklęczki - now Kutno Agro-Industrial Park. The decisive factor was access to the A2 motorway and the presence of a system of sidings connected with the E20 railway. KAIP began in 1996 during construction of

5994-554: The 1280s, Duke Boleslaw II and Duke Konrad II fought over control of the settlement. As a result, in 1286 it was burned by Konrad II. Quickly rebuilt, in 1300 Gostynin was besieged but not captured by forces of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia . In c. 1326, the gord was besieged by Władysław I the Elbow-high , who wanted to control the area of Płock , which was a Bohemian fief. By the early 14th century, Gostynin emerged as an important administrative center of Mazovia. In 1329, it became

6156-468: The 17th-century German historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500, with the date of 476 first used by Bruni. Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe. For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there

6318-478: The 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such monks as Columba (d. 597) and Columbanus (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works. The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of monasticism in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with

6480-731: The 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of Roman law ; the first effort—the Codex Theodosianus —was completed in 438. Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the Corpus Juris Civilis . Justinian also oversaw

6642-685: The 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria. Such warfare was exploited by Pippin (d. 640), the Mayor of the Palace for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later members of his family inherited the office, acting as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, Charles Martel (d. 741), won

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6804-651: The Arabs. The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and by the 7th century found only in a few cities such as Rome or Naples . By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the Muslim conquests , African products were no longer found in Western Europe. The replacement of goods from long-range trade with local products

6966-536: The Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France. Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost. In 987 the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of Hugh Capet (r. 987–996) as king. In the eastern lands the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with

7128-417: The Balkan Peninsula. The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages. Latin , the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by vernacular languages which evolved from Latin, but were distinct from it, collectively known as Romance languages . These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but

7290-474: The Battle of Poitiers in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees. Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , and East Anglia which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts . Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under

7452-459: The Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state. There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural in character, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants settled on small farms. Little trade existed and much of that

7614-467: The Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son Otto II (r. 967–983) to Theophanu (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor Romanos II (r. 959–963). By the late 10th century Italy had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability; Otto III (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom. The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of

7776-462: The Christian period as nova (or "new"). Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as " dark " compared to the "light" of classical antiquity . Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries". Tripartite periodisation became standard after

7938-422: The Church had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were greater than the similarities. The formal break, known as the East–West Schism , came in 1054, when the papacy and the patriarchy of Constantinople clashed over papal supremacy and excommunicated each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the Roman Catholic Church and

8100-499: The Church had become music and art rather than the book. Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some original works were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of Sidonius Apollinaris (d. 489), Cassiodorus (d. c.  585 ), and Boethius (d. c. 525) were typical of the age. Changes also took place among laymen, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for

8262-448: The Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea. By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire. Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian basilicas of the 4th century and the 8th century, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture. One feature of

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8424-534: The Early Middle Ages are mostly illuminated manuscripts and carved ivories , originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down. Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the Cross of Lothair , several reliquaries , and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at Sutton Hoo and the hoards of Gourdon from Merovingian France, Guarrazar from Visigothic Spain and Nagyszentmiklós near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from

8586-457: The Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the Migration Period , including various Germanic peoples , formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire —came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate , an Islamic empire, after conquest by Muhammad's successors . Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures,

8748-455: The Eastern branch the Eastern Orthodox Church . The ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the west mostly intact, but the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western bishops looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. Many of the popes prior to 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of

8910-427: The Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796. An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor Maurice (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a succession dispute . This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, the Persians invaded and during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of

9072-560: The European Little League Baseball Center. In 1984, Juan Echevarria Motola, a Cuban living in Kutno, started teaching baseball to groups of young people. Therefore, a baseball section of "Stal Kutno" club was created. It is the biggest youth center of baseball in Europe. The European Baseball Championship is hosted annually in various age categories. The complex consists of two lighted stadiums that have enough space to hold up to two thousand spectators named for Edward Piszka and Stan Musial . The complex also includes three training fields and

9234-436: The European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as manors or villages. These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services, in a system known as manorialism . There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond, with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in

9396-441: The Frankish King Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy . The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invader's defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. The breakup of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over

9558-466: The Franks and Celtic Britons set up small polities. Francia was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is Childeric I (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its grave goods , which included weapons and a large quantity of gold. Under Childeric's son Clovis I (r. 509–511), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty , the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to

9720-558: The German Wehrmacht moved into Kutno, bombarding trains, the railway station, and houses throughout the district. At the junction of what is now Kochanowski Street and Maja Street, a German saboteur laid down a target for the bombers bombing the railway station. The area was annexed directly to Germany, and administratively became part of the Third Reich's Reichsgau Wartheland , within the district/county ( kreis ) of Kutno. In December 1939 expulsions began in accordance with Nazi Germany's racial and ethnic policies , which aimed to make

9882-425: The German tried to annex all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos. A three-year civil war followed his death. By the Treaty of Verdun (843), a kingdom between the Rhine and Rhone rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German was in control of Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles

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10044-431: The Great (d. 526) and set up a kingdom marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign. The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's Geneva and Lyon , it grew to become the realm of Burgundy in the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Elsewhere in Gaul,

10206-438: The High Middle Ages. This period also saw the collapse of the unified Christian church, with the East-West Schism of 1054 . The Crusades , first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims . Kings became the heads of centralised nation-states , reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified Christendom more distant. Intellectual life

10368-403: The Italian peninsula was conquered by the Ostrogoths . The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The Byzantine emperors maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of

10530-619: The Late Middle Ages and beginning the early modern period . The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history : classical civilisation or Antiquity , the Middle Ages and the Modern Period . The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or "middle season". In early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum , or "middle age", first recorded in 1604, and media saecula , or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625. The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval" or "mediæval"), meaning pertaining to

10692-439: The Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the Papal States . The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire, since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors. It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with

10854-405: The Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally. The various Germanic states in the west all had coinages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693-94 when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin

11016-411: The Middle Ages, derives from medium aevum . Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the " Six Ages " or the " Four Empires ", and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world. When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern". In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua (or "ancient") and to

11178-496: The Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the Aghlabids controlled North Africa, and the Tulunids became rulers of Egypt. By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old Roman economy . Franks traded timber, furs, swords and slaves in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from

11340-464: The National Center for Food Processing and Distribution . Construction was led by the Urban Institute and the U.S. Agency for International Development and was opened in 1998. KAIP is constructed on 370 hectares, and now has over 60 businesses of local and foreign capital operate within its boundaries. Nearly 6,000 people are employed here. The food industry, packaging, plastics processing, manufacturing of agricultural equipment, and pharmaceuticals are

11502-441: The Polish assault was successful but the Germans reinforced their troops on 12 September and started to counterattack. General Tadeusz Kutrzeba ordered Knoll to retreat beyond the Bzura river. Kutno remained outside the battle area. Despite the ultimate defeat of Polish army , the Battle of the Bzura river made the Germans change their strategy and regroup and also delayed the capitulation of Warsaw . On 16 September 1939,

11664-830: The Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms. Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In Anglo-Saxon England , King Alfred the Great (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in Danish settlements in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia. By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria, and restored English control over most of

11826-623: The Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles West Francia with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. Louis the German (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the suzerainty of his elder brother. The division was disputed. Pepin II of Aquitaine (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for Aquitaine , while Louis

11988-681: The Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called Medieval Latin . Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs, but was unable to do so as only one son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Louis's reign of 26 years

12150-496: The Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects. Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions. An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities. Many of the new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there

12312-622: The St. Lawrence Church (designed in a neo-Gothic style by Konstantyn Wojciechowski) was built. On 5 January 1904, the Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz , a Nobel prize laureate, stayed in the Town Theatre, which was the seat of the Fire Brigade at that time. Income from his lecture was given to the poor children of Kutno. After his speech, a ball was held, to which only men were allowed, while women could watch it only from open windows. The famous Jewish writer(Polish Jews) Szalom Asz

12474-636: The Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of Africa . In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king Attila (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452. The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart. These invasions by the tribes completely changed

12636-455: The West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having a great deal of autonomy. Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of

12798-567: The acceptance of figurative monumental sculpture in Christian art , and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the Gero Cross were common in important churches. During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force as well as the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured cataphract -type soldiers as cavalry

12960-417: The basilica is the use of a transept , or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave . Other new features of religious architecture include the crossing tower and a monumental entrance to the church , usually at the west end of the building. Carolingian art was produced for a small group of figures around the court, and the monasteries and churches they supported. It

13122-551: The biggest settlements in central Poland . The Second Partition of Poland occurred in 1793. Kutno had been completely under Prussian control and became part of the newly created province of South Prussia. The whole province of Kutno became part of the Łęczyca department, then after the Third Partition , it became part of the Warsaw department. On 4 January 1807, Napoleon Bonaparte passed through Kutno. In 1807, under

13284-632: The break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in Northern Italy in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks , under

13446-407: The city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople . Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others. Civil war between rival emperors became common in

13608-413: The coldest with average highs of 2 °C (35.6 °F) and lows of −3 °C (26.6 °F). July has the most rainfall with an average of 73mm and January has the least with 30mm. There are indications that the origin of the town may have taken place in the 12th century. The first mention of it was found in a document concerning an endowment of Łęczyca prepositure published due to a consecration of

13770-478: The collegiate church in Łęczyca in the year 1161. According to the local folklore, both the town and the parish came into being in 1250, although official documentation to that effect is lacking. Most probably, the town began to be settled some time between the 12th and the 14th centuries; its name appeared for the first time in a document from the year 1301. The document had been published for his son Ziemysław by Leszek, Przemysł, and Kazimierz – duke of Kuyavia in

13932-599: The conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and liturgy from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of the Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century issues such as iconoclasm , clerical marriage , and state control of

14094-743: The construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths, under Belisarius (d. 565). The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of plague in 542 led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests. At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of most of Italy , North Africa, and

14256-551: The control of kings. There were perhaps as many as 150 local kings in Ireland, of varying importance. The Carolingian dynasty , as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by Pippin III (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought, and gained, authority for this coup from Pope Stephen II (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover

14418-638: The conversion of the Moravians , Bulgars , Bohemians , Poles , Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the Kievan Rus' . These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of Moravia , Bulgaria , Bohemia , Poland , Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'. Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from

14580-769: The death of Louis the Child , and the selection of the unrelated Conrad I (r. 911–918) as king. The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings , who also raided the British Isles and settled there as well as in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. c. 931) received permission from

14742-401: The death of Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1504, or the conquest of Granada in 1492. Historians from Romance-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late". In the 19th century,

14904-578: The disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople on 9 August 378. In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems. In 400, the Visigoths invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 sacked the city of Rome . In 406

15066-664: The dominant branches. 111 hectares were set aside as part of the Special Economic Zone of Łódź. In 2000, the Town Council created the Łódź Special Economic Zone in Kutno Agro-Industrial park. It was originally 23 hectares and had four zones: Odlewnicza St. (4.24ha), Sklęczkowska St. (6.48 ha), Stalowa I and II (7.87ha and 4.49ha). The Sub-zone has been broadened in the following years: 2002, 2005, twice in 2007 and in 2010. According to data from

15228-442: The early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of militia-type levies of the free population declined over the Carolingian period. Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been mounted infantry , rather than true cavalry. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as

15390-531: The elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces. Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of the feud in aristocratic society, examples of which included those related by Gregory of Tours that took place in Merovingian Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with

15552-591: The emergence of Islam in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad (d. 632). After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with Syria in 634–635, continuing with Persia between 637 and 642, reaching Egypt in 640–641, North Africa in the later seventh century, and the Iberian Peninsula in 711. By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of

15714-403: The empire than tax-payers. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative promulgations in one division were considered valid in the other. In 330, after a period of civil war, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337) refounded

15876-573: The empire to Christianity , a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries. In 376, the Goths , fleeing from the Huns , received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of Thracia in the Balkans . The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder. Valens, attempting to put down

16038-447: The empire, including Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628 the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered all of its lost territories. In Western Europe, some of the older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to Latin scholarship and education mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became

16200-486: The empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration. The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as Stilicho (d. 408), Aetius (d. 454), Aspar (d. 471), Ricimer (d. 472), or Gundobad (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When

16362-405: The end of January 2010, the whole area of Kutno sub-zone is 111 hectares. Capital investments of companies operating only in the Kutno sub-zone have exceeded the value of 1 billion PLN over the last 10 years. Kindergartens, elementary schools and middle schools: High schools Higher education Art schools Pastoral services are provided by the following churches: Kutno is the seat of

16524-454: The entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the " Dark Ages ", but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians. The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories. Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on

16686-420: The factory. The German soldiers and SS members beat the Jews standing in the street. Eight thousand people were transferred to the area of the factory, within five buildings. On the first day, crowded and without any first-aid facilities, a few people died. The only food they had was a small amount of potatoes and bread. Prices of extra food were very high. For instance, one kilogram of potatoes cost 40 Pfennig in

16848-502: The first hospital in Kutno was opened, sponsored by Kutno's former owner Feliks Mniewski. A City Hall was built in 1845 in classicistic style. The building, located in the Marshal Piłsudski square, currently serves as the Regional Museum , in which one can see mementos and records from the history of Kutno. In 1862, the Warsaw – Bydgoszcz railway line opened, leading Kutno to become an important railway junction and

17010-635: The frontiers combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century , with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers. Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire , which revived in the middle of the 3rd century. The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the Roman legion as

17172-663: The ghetto, while it was 5 Pfennig in the rest of the town. However, a true nightmare started in winter, when there was not enough firewood, so that the Jews had to burn furniture or scaffolding . In the following year, 1941, due to overcrowding of resettled people and transport difficulties, a concentration camp was established at 7 Przemysłowa St. Due to terrible conditions in the camp, about 10 persons died of dysentery every day. On 9 June 1941, at present-day Wolności Square, three Poles, Kalikst Perkowski, Wilhelm Czernecki and Piotr Sanda, were publicly executed in punishment for smuggling food to Warsaw . Their deaths were intended to be

17334-451: The imperial officials called missi dominici , who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters. Charlemagne's court in Aachen was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the " Carolingian Renaissance ". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk Alcuin (d. 804)

17496-415: The king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne , embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and Saxony . In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land. In 774, Charlemagne conquered

17658-679: The large brooches in fibula or penannular form that were a key piece of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish Tara Brooch . Highly decorated books were mostly Gospel Books and these have survived in larger numbers , including the Insular Book of Kells , the Book of Lindisfarne , and the imperial Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram , which is one of the few to retain its " treasure binding " of gold encrusted with jewels. Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for

17820-528: The letters, of Pope Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) survived, and of those more than 850 letters, the vast majority were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the Gregorian mission in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between

17982-417: The line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common. This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state. Material artefacts left by

18144-409: The local police and fire department, local teachers and priests. In February 1940, the Germans carried out a massacre of 40 Poles in the nearby forest. From 1940 to 1944 the local Polish population was subjected to expulsions . German authorities opened here a Jewish ghetto , most of whose residents were murdered in the Chełmno extermination camp . Germans retreated from Gostynin on 18 January 1945. As

18306-517: The main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages. Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries. The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called Austrasia , Neustria , and Burgundy during

18468-410: The main tactical unit. The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the curial , or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns. More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in

18630-467: The middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing invaders to encroach. For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier classical period , with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns. Another change was the Christianisation , or conversion of

18792-488: The migrations of the Slavs added Slavic languages to Eastern Europe. As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the Sasanian Empire , the traditional enemy of Rome, lasted throughout most of

18954-464: The military was the horseshoe , which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain. The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous expansion of population . The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80 million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a more clement climate and the lack of invasion have all been suggested. As much as 90 per cent of

19116-786: The natives of Britannia  – modern-day Great Britain – settled in what is now Brittany . Other monarchies were established by the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula , the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, and the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa . In the sixth century, the Lombards settled in Northern Italy , replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of duchies that occasionally selected

19278-400: The north. The practice of assarting , or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to the expansion of population. Kutno Kutno [ˈkutnɔ] is a city located in central Poland with 42,704 inhabitants (2021) and an area of 33.6 km (13.0 sq mi). It is the capital of Kutno County in

19440-545: The payment of some sort of compensation . Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under

19602-707: The peninsula in a region they called Al-Andalus . The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate and its replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate . The Abbasids moved their capital to Baghdad and were more concerned with

19764-408: The political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire. By the end of the 5th century the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units, ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century. The deposition of the last emperor of the west, Romulus Augustulus , in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. By 493

19926-532: The political power devolved to the local lords. Missionary efforts to Scandinavia during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as Sweden , Denmark , and Norway , which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became Russia and Iceland . Swedish traders and raiders ranged down

20088-494: The presence of three estate dignitaries as well as other people gathered during a convention in Włocławek . References to Kutno concern the appearance of rector Michał from the church in Kutno on the list of witnesses. In 1386, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia had given to Andrzej de Kutno the privilege of freeing Kutno and Sieciechów villages from all charges and burdens excluding two coins ( grosz ) out of every crop fee. The role of

20250-493: The process of recovery: St. Martin church, town hall and inn were rebuilt, and ruins of the castle were turned into a Protestant church. On January 28, 1863, the sixth day of the January Uprising , a Polish insurgent unit liberated a transport of Poles forcibly conscripted into the Russian army. During the uprising, a rebel unit of Emeryk Syrewicz operated in the area of Gostynin. In 1918, Poland regained independence and control of

20412-419: The protection and control of a male relative. Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from archaeology ; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either law codes or writers from the upper classes. Landholding patterns in

20574-455: The provincial courts was transferred to the Duke. In 1386, the village of Kutno was given trade and town rights, and 46 years later, in 1432 a municipal town charter . The first records that define Kutno as a town appeared in 1444. Kutno was historically famous for its rose fair which after 1989 changed its name into The Festival of Roses/The Rose Festival. 1 July 1504: Mikołaj of Kutno gained

20736-536: The right to hold the St. Wawrzyniec fair, improving the development of the town's trade. In 1701, the Kucieński family gave up Kutno to Anna Zamojska. The Zamoyski family fought amongst themselves for the property for a long time. The town fell into debt but the situation had normalized when Andrzej Hieronim Zamoyski became the owner of Kutno. During that time Kutno was a town of prosperity and development. A route connecting Warsaw with Poznań and Dresden ran through

20898-470: The rivers of the Russian steppe, and even attempted to seize Constantinople in 860 and 907 . Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of Asturias and León . In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–959), members of

21060-540: The seat of a castellan ; first known castellan was a man named Pawel, mentioned in a 1345 document. In 1352, Siemowit III for the first time used the title “Duke of Gostynin”. It was probably during his reign that a defensive castle with a tower was built. At that time, a new settlement was established on the right bank of the Skrwa Lewa river, with a market square and a new parish church of St. Martin. In 1382, Duke Siemowit IV granted town charter to Gostynin, and as

21222-668: The slow infiltration of the Balkans by the Slavs added a further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s Slavic tribes were in Thrace and Illyrium , and had defeated an imperial army near Adrianople in 551. In the 560s the Avars began to expand from their base on the north bank of the Danube ; by the end of the 6th-century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force

21384-697: The southern part of Great Britain. In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba . In the early 10th century, the Ottonian dynasty had established itself in Germany , and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of Otto I (r. 936–973) as Holy Roman Emperor . In 972, he secured recognition of his title by

21546-930: The town are simply called housing developments (e.g.: Łąkoszyn housing development). These divisions are mostly historical references. For instance, the Łąkoszyn housing development is part of what remains of the town of Łąkoszyn town which was incorporated to Kutno. The following parts of Kutno have been formulated in the National Register of Country's Administrative Division: Antoniew, Azory, Bielawki, Dybów, Kościuszków, Kotliska Małe, Łąkoszyn, Puśniki, Sklęczki, Stara Wieś, Stodółki, Walentynów, Wiktoryn, Żwirownia. Customary Administrative Division of Kutno: Dybów, Piaski, Rejtana, Tarnowskiego, Kościuszków, Olimpijska, Sklęczki, Łąkoszyn (New Łąkoszyn – houses and Old Łąkoszyn – housing development ), Majdany, Grunwald, Batorego, Rataje (between Solidarność roundabout, Targowica and The Kutno House of Culture). The climate of Kutno

21708-581: The town in the 18th century and King Augustus III of Poland often traveled that route. The town's prestige increased after King Augustus III of Poland ordered the construction of the Postal Palace and consequently, the Saxon Palace was built. It was constructed between 1750 and 1753, after a royal track leading from Dresden to Warsaw had been built. The palace was decorated with rich interiors according to John M Walter's plans. In 1753, Kutno

21870-428: The town population purely German . People were forced to leave their houses early in the morning with only an hour's notice and could take only 50 kg (110 lb) of baggage and a small amount of money. Expulsion was very often carried out with violence. People were transported by trucks or wagons and then in sealed trains. The trip was up to eight days long, in terrible conditions. Poles from Kutno were also among

22032-423: The town to Płock . Kutno is located in the northern part of the Łódź Voivodeship and is 20 kilometres (12 miles) to the northwest of the geographical center of Poland . According to the data from 1 January 2009, the area of the town amounts to 33.59 square kilometres (12.97 sq mi). According to the physical–geographic division of Poland , the town is placed on the western edge of Kutno plain, which

22194-499: The town was directly annexed to the Third Reich . Its name was first changed into Gasten , and from June 1941 until the end of German occupation it was called Walrode . In October–November 1939, the Germans carried out mass arrests of local prominent Poles , as part of the Intelligenzaktion and then massacred 22 prisoners in the nearby forest of Wola Łącka on 1 December 1939. Among the victims were local mayor Michał Jarmoliński, member of Polish parliament Andrzej Czapski, chiefs of

22356-434: The town. In 1840, a chapel was built which later became the Museum of the Battle of the Bzura river. Built in the Neo-Renaissance style and rotunda shape and crowned with a dome, it is part of the Wiosny Ludów park. It formerly served as a mausoleum for the Rzątkowski and Mniewski families. Another fire destroyed nearly all of the houses on Królewska St. Only two buildings remained – nowadays Crocantino and MDM. In 1844,

22518-400: The town. The town had a significant Jewish minority, which in the Second Polish Republic numbered some 2,000, out of total population of 12,000. In 1924-25, Gostynin received rail connection with Płock and Kutno , thanks to a newly built line. During the German invasion of Poland , which started World War II , the Wehrmacht captured the town on 16 September 1939, and by late September,

22680-447: The towns chosen as capitals. Although there had been Jewish communities in many Roman cities , the Jews suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and at times were even encouraged to settle in new areas. Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Judaism

22842-412: The victims of a massacre carried out by the German police in February 1940 near Gostynin (see Nazi crimes against the Polish nation ). On 14 April 1940, during the AB-Aktion , most of the Polish teachers from the Kutno district were arrested. Only a few survived having had left their houses earlier or having been prewarned. At least 173 Poles from Kutno and the county were murdered by the Soviets in

23004-409: The war, hundreds of 15-year-old boys enlisted in the Army Mining Corps, today known as the miner–soldiers. From April 1919 to January 1921, a future French president Charles de Gaulle stayed in Kutno, as an instructor with the French military mission under general Louis Faury . On 5 March 1938, Kutno received its blazon , which depicts two rampant wild boars on the yellow background, leaning against

23166-514: The west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the Italian Peninsula ( Gothic War ) in the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception. The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into

23328-481: The year (about half of the national average). Snow falls, on average, 39 days in a year. There are about 21 foggy days during the year in the municipal area. But near the Ochnia river fog occurs quite often. On average there are 50 sunny and 130 cloudy days every year. The wind comes mostly from the west, veering southwest in winter and northwest in summer. July and August are the hottest months with average highs of 24  °C (75.20  °F ). December and January are

23490-411: Was a choreographer and manager as well as director of the Kutno House of Culture founded the "Song and Dance of Kutno`s Land Band" ("Zespół Pieśni i Tańca Ziemi Kutnowskiej"). In 1971, the former Town Hall at the Marshal Piłsudski square Kutno Regional Museum was reopened. In 1975, the city was adjoined to the Płock Voivodeship and would remain so for the next 23 years. Annually, since September 1975,

23652-438: Was a trend throughout the old Roman lands that happened in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In the northern parts of Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around

23814-402: Was an active proselytising faith, and at least one Arab political leader converted to it. In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences. Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' Zoroastrianism in seeking converts, especially among residents of the Arabian Peninsula . All these strands came together with

23976-438: Was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies. During the early invasion period, the stirrup had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as shock troops because it

24138-457: Was and still is fulfilling its important role in broadening culture. Because of developed railway and road trails, Kutno has been attractive for investors. Among the many branches of industry in Kutno, the most important was the electronics industry. In 1957 Radio Components Company Miflex opened, and would eventually employ over three thousand people. The Company is one of the important distributors of capacitors , anti- interference filters. At

24300-436: Was born in Kutno in 1880. In his collection of short stories "Miasteczko" ("The Town"), he described the situation of Jewish people from this town – Kutno. Every two years, the town holds the Szalom Asz Festival, which includes a literary contest about his works. In the 19th c. Kutno was a center of a sizeable Jewish community. In 1900, 10,356 Jews lived there. From 15 to 16 October 1914, the Battle of Kutno took place between

24462-406: Was captured by Prussian army. The castle, which had for long time been neglected, was pulled down, and its archive was seized by the occupiers. In 1807–1815, Gostynin belonged to the Duchy of Warsaw ; in 1809, most of the town burned in a great fire. In 1824, the government of Russian-controlled Congress Poland invited to Gostynin 124 German cloth makers, who came with their families. The town began

24624-477: Was completely burned, resulting in the loss of the town records along with the settlement grant. After the fire, the King's Lord Councillor Andrzej Zamoyski left Kutno in order to obtain another settlement grant, however, the town suffered another fire due to one of many army march-passes in 1774 and easygoing attitude of soldiers. In 1775, Andrzej Zamoyski sold Kutno to Stanisław Kostka Gadomski – governor of Łęczyca province. Under his reign, Kutno became one of

24786-420: Was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and Byzantine art , but was also influenced by the Insular art of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of Irish Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Germanic styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from

24948-408: Was invited to Aachen and brought the education available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's chancery —or writing office—made use of a new script today known as Carolingian minuscule , allowing a common writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy , imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as

25110-434: Was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed. Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralised government. The Ostrogoths , a Gothic tribe, settled in Roman Italy in the late fifth century under Theoderic

25272-436: Was marked by scholasticism , a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities . The theology of Thomas Aquinas , the paintings of Giotto , the poetry of Dante and Chaucer , the travels of Marco Polo , and the Gothic architecture of cathedrals such as Chartres are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages. The Late Middle Ages

25434-470: Was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the Black Death killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, heresy , and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and peasant revolts that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding

25596-439: Was marked by numerous divisions of the empire among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son Lothair I (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy. Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and Charles the Bald (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took East Francia , comprising both banks of

25758-496: Was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider. The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic composite bow in place of the earlier, and weaker, Scythian composite bow. Another development was the increasing use of longswords and the progressive replacement of scale armour by mail armour and lamellar armour . The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during

25920-442: Was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and Carloman (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as

26082-417: Was the denarius or denier , while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a penny . From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000 AD. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted. Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but

26244-409: Was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean. The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts , who administered the counties the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as

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