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95-570: Valdivia ( Spanish pronunciation: [balˈdiβja] ; Mapuche : Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile , administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder , Pedro de Valdivia , and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle , Valdivia , and Cau-Cau Rivers, approximately 15 km (9 mi) east of the coastal towns of Corral and Niebla . Since October 2007, Valdivia has been

190-498: A Spanish enclave surrounded by native Huilliche territory. Together with Castro, Chile on the island of Chiloé , it was one of the southernmost colonies of the Empire. Eleven days after the first destruction of Valdivia, a group of 270 Spanish soldiers arrived from Perú. The commander of the troops, colonel Francisco del Campo was convinced that the city of Valdivia needed to be repopulated. After Francisco del Campo's expedition left,

285-469: A celebration that could be described as a small, regional Oktoberfest , despite being celebrated in late January or February of every year (during the local summer, when there is the largest influx of tourists). The main sponsor and organizer is Kunstmann , a local beer company, founded by German nationals, but since bought out by the largest beer and beverages company in Chile (CCU). The Valdivia Book Fair

380-535: A chronicler who witnessed the founding wrote: "Having the governor seen such good comarca and site for populate a city and riverside of such good river, and having such good harbour he founded a city and named it ciudad de Valdivia , and he assigned Alcaldes and a town council ." After Pedro de Valdivia's death, the war with the Mapuches , called the War of Arauco , continued. The Spanish made many attempts to defeat

475-583: A connection between the Merindonal subgroup mentioned above and the Mapuche language does not exist. Current linguists reject Greenberg's findings due to methodological concerns and opt instead for more conservative methods of classification. Moreover, many linguists do not accept the existence of an Amerindian language family due to the lack of available information needed to confirm it. Other authorities such as SIL International classify Mapuche as one of

570-469: A fire destroyed 18 city blocks in downtown Valdivia, which were rebuilt with modern concrete buildings. By 1911 lumber production, from clearing of native forests, became the most important industry. Cattle-raising was a growing industry, and wheat was grown on the cleared lands. Lumber, cattle, leather, flour and beer were exported. In 1895 the city's population was 8,062 inhabitants and was estimated at 9,704 in 1902. Valdivia, situated at some distance from

665-604: A former city wall, built by the Spaniards to defend the city, known as Torreones : Torreón Los Canelos and Torreón del Barro . Since the first Germans migrated to Valdivia in the mid-1840s, German cultural influence has been visible in the city. Germans in Valdivia settled mostly in the Isla Teja and Collico suburban areas. Until the building of Pedro de Valdivia Bridge , inhabitants of Isla Teja lived isolated from

760-773: A linguist from the United States, proposed a system of classification of the many indigenous languages of the Americas in which the Amerindian language family would include the large majority of languages found on the South American continent, which were formerly grouped in distinct families. The only families that fell outside of his framework were the Eskimo–Aleut languages and Na-Dene languages . According to this classification, Mapuche would be considered part of

855-444: A major earthquake and then by being placed under the administration of what they perceived to be a less-deserving city, Puerto Montt . The recent creation of a new, smaller, but more independent region (Los Ríos), with Valdivia as its capital, reduced the previous stigma. Valdivia's varied influences are reflected by its multicultural toponyms that include placenames of Mapuche , Spanish, Quechua and German origin. During much of

950-645: A migratory wave arising from the collapse of the Tiwanaku Empire around 1000 CE. There is a more recent lexical influence from the Quechuan languages ( pataka 'hundred', warangka 'thousand'), associated with the Inca Empire , and from Spanish. As result of Inca rule, there was some Mapudungun– Imperial Quechua bilingualism among the Mapuches of Aconcagua Valley at the time of the arrival of

1045-468: A million Indians living within ten leagues (one league is roughly 4.2 km) from the city. Other historians consider these numbers too high and argue that early Spaniards usually exaggerated in their descriptions. Later the British naturalist Charles Darwin observed that "there is not much cleared land near Valdivia." This suggests that pre-Hispanic agriculture in Valdivia was far more extensive than

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1140-712: A period of pillaging by the Spanish and loyalist Huilliches that had relocated from Osorno to the forts of Carelmapu and Calbuco . After Valdivia was refounded in 1645, the Spanish struggled to establish a land route to the vicinities of Chiloé Archipelago across independent Huilliche territory. There are reports in the 17th and 18th centuries of internal conflicts among the Huilliche. This may have stunted population growth. In late 18th century Basque navigator José de Moraleda wrote that Huilliches of Osorno were more stocky, agile and of general better appearance than

1235-583: A push from more northern Huilliches , who in turn were being displaced by Mapuches . According to Ramírez "more than a dozen Mapuche – Rapa Nui cognates have been described". Among these are the Mapuche/Rapa Nui words toki / toki (axe), kuri / uri (black) and piti / iti (little). As the 16th and 17th century Central Chile was becoming a melting pot for uprooted indigenous peoples, it has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua and Spanish coexisted there, with significant bilingualism, during

1330-586: A relatively new city founded only in 1853 (three hundred and one years later). Since the liberalization of the economy in Chile in the 1980s the forestry sector in Valdivia boomed, first by exporting wood chips to Japan from Corral and then by producing woodpulp in Mariquina (50 km northeast of Valdivia). This led to deforestation and substitution of native Valdivian temperate rainforests to plant pines and eucalyptus , but also created new jobs for people with limited education. Valdivia also benefitted from

1425-452: A remnant of Spanish colonialism . Mapudungun is not an official language of the countries Chile and Argentina, receiving virtually no government support throughout its history. However, since 2013, Mapuche, along with Spanish, has been granted the status of an official language by the local government of Galvarino , one of the many Communes of Chile . It is not used as a language of instruction in either country's educational system despite

1520-462: A strong presence in the area by then. Beginning in the mid-18th century, Valdivia left behind its past as an enclave and a period of agricultural expansion begun. The expansion, that mainly directed to the south, was done mostly by pacific means, but hostilities with indigenous Huilliches did occur. After the Valdivian colonization had reached Bueno River , Spanish authorities pushed for connecting

1615-468: Is a historically debated topic and hypotheses have changed over time. In a 1970 publication, Stark argued that Mapuche is related to Mayan languages of Mesoamerica . The following year, Hamp adopted this same hypothesis. Stark later argued in 1973 that Mapuche descended from a language known as 'Yucha' which is a sister of Proto-Mayan language and a predecessor of the Chimuan languages , which hail from

1710-464: Is centered in Arauco Province , Sub-group II is the dialect of Angol , Los Ángeles and the middle and lower Bío Bío River . Sub-group III is centered around Purén . In the areas around Lonquimay , Melipeuco and Allipén River dialect sub-group IV is spoken. Sub-group V is spoken at the coast of Araucanía Region including Queule , Budi Lake and Toltén . Temuco is the epicenter of

1805-542: Is not much cleared land near Valdivia" which contrasted with the description made by early Spaniards of large fields and extensive croplands. The expansion and economic development of the city were limited in the early 19th century. To jump-start economic development, the Chilean government initiated a highly focussed immigration program under Bernhard Eunom Philippi and later Vicente Pérez Rosales as government agents. Through this program, thousands of Germans settled in

1900-744: Is organized annually by the Municipal Cultural Corporation in Parque Saval. Likewise, the Society of Writers of Chile, through its subsidiary Valdivia and with the collaboration of the Austral University of Chile , regularly holds literary gatherings, a space in which books are presented and local letters are shared with the student community. Several authors born in the Los Ríos Region also stand out in

1995-499: Is the modern Feria Fluvial (English: Riverside Market) on the banks of Valdivia River. The surroundings of Valdivia were described as extensive plains having a large population that cultivated potatoes , maize , quinoa and legumes , among other crops. The population has been estimated by some historians as 30 to 40 thousand inhabitants as of 1548, based on descriptions made by the conquistadors. Pedro Mariño de Lobera , an early conquistador and chronicler , wrote that there were half

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2090-755: The Centro de Estudios Científicos . The city of Valdivia and the Chiloé Archipelago were once the two southernmost outliers of the Spanish Empire . From 1645 to 1740, the city depended directly on the Viceroyalty of Peru , which financed the building of the Valdivian fort system that turned Valdivia into one of the most fortified cities of the New World. In the mid-19th century, Valdivia

2185-703: The Dutch corsair Sebastian de Cordes occupied the site of Valdivia for some months, giving the Dutch government information about this abandoned part of the Spanish Empire. The Spaniards returned on 13 March 1602, when captain Francisco Hernández Ortiz established a fort on the ruins of the city. On September 24 natives attacked the fort unsuccessfully, but laid siege. The Spaniards could not acquire food or supplies, and on 3 February 1604 abandoned

2280-712: The Figueroa incursion of 1792 Huilliches were decisively defeated and their territory was gradually opened to European settlement beginning with the Parliament of Las Canoas . Today, most Huilliche speak Spanish, but some, especially older adults, speak the Huilliche language . Laurelia sempervirens , known in Huilliche triwe and in Spanish as laurel , is the ritual tree of the Huilliche of Futahuillimapu. The main modern areas of Huilliche settlement are two; San Juan de la Costa west of Osorno and Compu - Chadmo in

2375-621: The Great Chilean earthquake . With the founding of Universidad Austral in 1954 and the arrival of the CECS research center, Valdivia is now considered a major research center in Chile, particularly in areas related to nature such a glaciology and ecology . The Great Chilean earthquake and the national government's creation of the Los Lagos Region were difficult for Valdivian society. Valdivians resented to be punished first by

2470-656: The Mapuche macroethnic group in Chile and Argentina . Located in the Zona Sur , they inhabit both Futahuillimapu ("great land of the south") and, as the Cunco or Veliche subgroup, the northern half of Chiloé Island . The Huilliche are the principal indigenous people of those regions. According to Ricardo E. Latcham the term Huilliche started to be used in Spanish after the second founding of Valdivia in 1645, adopting

2565-533: The Precordillera east of Osorno . This purchase was later ratified by Chilean courts and serves to illustrate how Chilean authorities ignored their own legal order that guaranteed Huilliche property. As result of the establishment of Chilean and European settlers, including Germans, around Bueno River , Osorno Huilliches living in the Central Valley migrated to the coastal region of Osorno. In

2660-691: The Río Cruces y Chorocomayo – a new aquatic park north of the city. Large sections of the city flooded after the earthquake, and a landslide near the Tralcán Mount dammed the Riñihue Lake . Water levels in Lake Riñihue rose more than 20 meters (66 feet), raising the danger of a catastrophic break and of destroying everything downriver. Government authorities drew plans for evacuating the city, but many people left on their own. Danger to

2755-589: The Zona Austral and also with Chonan languages of Patagonia , some of which are now extinct. However, according to Key, there is a closer relation still between Mapuche and the Pano-Tacanan languages from Bolivia and Perú, a connection also made by Loos in 1973. Key also argued that there is a link to two Bolivian language isolates: the Mosetén and Yuracaré languages . In 1987, Joseph Greenberg ,

2850-546: The 17th century. However the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish the most is Quechua rather than Mapuche. In colonial times, many Spanish and Mestizos spoke the Mapuche language. For example, in the 17th century, many soldiers at the Valdivian Fort System had some command of Mapuche. During the 17th and 18th centuries, most of Chiloé Archipelago 's population was bilingual , and according to John Byron , many Spaniards preferred to use

2945-499: The 1992 and 2002 censuses, the population grew by 15.1% (18,391 persons). The city of Valdivia spans 42.39 km (16 sq mi) had a population of 127,750 and 35,217 homes, giving it a population density of 3,013.7/km (7,805/sq mi). The commune is divided into 19 census districts with one recognized town , Niebla, with an area of 1.55 square kilometers (0.60 sq mi), population of 2,202 (in 1,169 homes) and population density of 1,420.6/km (3,679/sq mi). Within

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3040-827: The Andean language family, within the Meridional subgroup which also includes the Kawésgar language, the Puelche language , the Tehuelche language and the Yagán language. To Greenberg, Araucano isn't an individual language, but rather a subgroup composed of four languages: Araucano, Mapuche, Moluche, and Pehuenche. However, the comparative methods employed by Greenberg are controversial. In 1994, Viegas Barros directly contradicted Greenberg's hypothesis and part of Key's, arguing that

3135-536: The Arauco War. But that year 4,000 Indians who had been fighting in Martín Ruiz de Gamboa's army rebelled after returning to the area of Valdivia. During the 16th century, the economy of Valdivia was sustained by trade in agricultural products from nearby areas and by the coining and export of placer gold from Villarrica , Madre de Dios and Osorno . In Lima and the rest of Chile, people referred to all

3230-528: The Chilean government's commitment to provide full access to education in Mapuche areas in southern Chile. There is an ongoing political debate over which alphabet to use as the standard alphabet of written Mapudungun. In 1982, it was estimated that there were 202,000 Mapuche speakers in Chile, including those that speak the Pehuenche and Huilliche dialects, and another 100,000 speakers in Argentina as of

3325-409: The Dutch part of Brazil had equipped the expedition and had secretly appointed Elias Herckman as commander if Brouwer died. Herckman finally occupied the ruins of Valdivia in 1643, renaming it Brouwershaven . The Dutch did not find the gold mines they expected and the hostility of the natives forced them to leave on 28 October 1643. Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva Viceroy of Peru (1639–1648) knew of

3420-552: The German-style wood houses. The governments of Spain and Germany currently maintain honorary consulates in Valdivia. The city is commonly seen as a tourist magnet in Chile, and sometimes described as La Perla del Sur ( The Pearl of the South ) and as La ciudad mas linda de Chile ( Chile's most beautiful city ). Every year during the summer months of January and February the municipality organizes many free cultural events along

3515-784: The Hoffmann gristmill , the Rudloff shoe factory, the Anwandter beer company and many more. The steel mills of Corral were the largest recorded private investment in Chile at the time, and were the first steel mills in South America . In 1891 Valdivia became a commune according to a law that created such subdivisions. After the Malleco Viaduct was built in 1890 the railroads advanced further south, reaching Valdivia in 1895. The first passenger train arrived in 1899. In 1909

3610-412: The Mapuche and defend the cities and forts built on their territory. On March 17 of 1575 the city was damaged by a massive earthquake . It has since been likened to the Great Chilean earthquake of 1960 in terms of damage. Until 1575, the Huilliche of Valdivia did not organize any notable resistance against the Spanish. They had fought as Indios amigos with the Spanish against the northern Mapuche in

3705-802: The Mapuche territory today. Around Temuco , Freire and Gorbea the sub-group VI is spoken. Group VII is spoken in Valdivia Province plus Pucón and Curarrehue . The last "dialect" sub-group is VIII which is the Huilliche language spoken from Lago Ranco and Río Bueno to the south and is not mutually intelligible with the other dialects. These can be grouped in four dialect groups: north, central, south-central and south. These are further divided into eight sub-groups: I and II (northern), III–IV (central), V-VII (south-central) and VIII (southern). The sub-groups III-VII are more closely related to each other than they are to I-II and VIII. Croese finds these relationships as consistent, but not proof, with

3800-536: The Spanish authorities in Valdivia . In 1792 the Huilliches were ravaged by a Spanish army led by Tomás de Figueroa . A peace parliament and treaty was signed in 1793. In the treaty Huilliche property was recognized by the Spanish. Sociedad Stuttgart, a society established in the 19th century to bring German settlers to Chile, purchased about 15 000 km under fraudulent conditions from Huilliches in

3895-473: The Spanish by surprise, avoiding a direct confrontation with the highly defended forts at the entrance to the Valdivia River. When loyal troops in Valdivia heard the news about the fall of Corral they sacked the city and fled south to reinforce Chiloé, passing by Osorno . Chilean Supreme Director, and Libertador , Bernardo O'Higgins founded the city of La Unión south of Valdivia in 1821, to secure

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3990-611: The Spanish in the 1530s and 1540s. The discovery of many Chono toponyms in Chiloé Archipelago , where Huilliche , a language closely related to Mapudungun, has been dominant, suggest that Mapudungun displaced Chono there prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the mid-16th century. A theory postulated by chronicler José Pérez García holds that the Cuncos settled in Chiloé Island in Pre-Hispanic times as consequence of

4085-455: The Valdivia culture, which developed in present-day Ecuador in the third millennium BC. There was also a very early Valdivia culture on the coast of Ecuador , but it is not related to the city of Valdivia. This archaeological culture flourished near the small village of Valdivia in Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE. By the time of the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores , Valdivia

4180-582: The abandonment of all the Spanish settlements and forts in their lands, in what came to be known as the Destruction of the Seven Cities . On the morning of 24 November 1599, the Huilliche attacked the city and massacred its inhabitants, some few being rescued by the ships in the harbour. The border of the Spanish Empire shifted north of the Bío-Bío River . Valdivia was re-established but it was

4275-606: The agriculture practiced in the early 19th century at the time of his visit. The first European to visit Valdivia River's estuary was the Genoese captain Juan Bautista Pastene , who took possession of it in 1544 in the name of the Spanish king, Charles V . He named the river after the Governor of Chile Pedro de Valdivia . Pedro de Valdivia later travelled by land to the river described by Pastene, and founded

4370-602: The area, incorporating then-modern technology and know-how to develop agriculture and industry. While immigrants that arrived to the Llanquihue area were often poor farmers, Valdivia received more educated immigrants, including political exiles and merchants. Some of the immigrants that arrived in Valdivia established workshops and built new industries. One of the most famous immigrants was Carlos Anwandter , an exile from Luckenwalde who arrived in Valdivia in 1850 and in 1858 founded Chile's first German school. Other Germans left

4465-426: The areas in which it is spoken and has also incorporated loanwords from both Spanish and Quechua . Depending on the alphabet, the sound /tʃ/ is spelled ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨c⟩ , and /ŋ/ as ⟨g⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ . The language is called either the "speech ( d/zuŋun ) of the land ( mapu )" or the "speech of the people ( tʃe )". An ⟨n⟩ may connect

4560-422: The best of them, we shall defend our adopted country joining in the ranks of our new countrymen, against any foreign oppression and with the decision and firmness of the man that defends his country, his family and his interests. Never will have the country that adopts us as its children, reason to repent of such illustrated, human and generous proceeding,... Valdivia prospered with industries, including shipyards,

4655-499: The capital Santiago and the main port city, Valparaíso . The commercial and human flux Valdivia suffered two setbacks in the early 20th century, first the connection of Osorno by railroad to central Chile which meant that Valdivia lost the quality of being the port that connected Osorno to Central Chile . Later on 1911 the opening of the Panama Canal meant a decrease in ship traffic all over Chile since ships travelling from

4750-447: The capital of Los Ríos Region and is also the capital of Valdivia Province . The national census of 2017 recorded the commune of Valdivia as having 166,080 inhabitants ( Valdivianos ), of whom 150,048 were living in the city. The main economic activities of Valdivia include tourism, wood pulp manufacturing, forestry , metallurgy, and beer production . The city is also the home of the Austral University of Chile , founded in 1954 and

4845-423: The celebration of what was seen as an affirmation of the legitimacy of the Spanish king. However, Valdivian independentists, such as Camilo Henríquez , saw an opportunity to gain absolute independence from Spain, organized a coup on 1 November 1811, and joined other Chilean cities that were already revolting against the old order. Four months after the coup, on 16 March 1812 a counterrevolutionary coup took control of

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4940-492: The city and became settlers, drawn by the promise of free land. They were often given forested land, which they cleared to turn into farms. Native Mapuche and Huilliche either sold their land or were pushed into reservations . The Osorno department of Valdivia Province was moved to Llanquihue Province (created in 1853) as consequence of German immigration to the Llaquihue area. We shall be honest and laborious Chileans as

5035-606: The city and created a War Council. The War Council broke trade relations with the rest of Chile and confirmed Valdivia's loyalty to the Spanish government. Even after several defeats of the Spanish troops during the Chilean Independence War , Valdivia and Chiloé remained loyal to the Spanish King. By 1820 the newly created Chilean Navy , commanded by Lord Thomas Cochrane , captured Valdivia , but failed to liberate Chiloé. Cochrane's land-based attack took

5130-602: The city of Valdivia in 1552 as Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia . It was the southernmost Spanish settlement in the Americas at the time of the founding. Following the establishment of the church of Santa María la Blanca in Valdivia, more buildings were constructed. Mariño de Lobera described it as "the second city in the Kingdom of Chile ". Many of Chile's most influential conquistadors and future governors were granted land in Valdivia, such as Jerónimo de Alderete , Rodrigo de Quiroga , Francisco and Pedro de Villagra , apart from Pedro de Valdivia himself. Jerónimo de Bibar ,

5225-462: The city of Valdivia with the settlements at Chacao Channel by a road. Self-governing juntas appeared in Spanish America and Spain after Napoleon occupied Spain and held the Spanish king Fernando VII captive. Many juntas, as was the case of Chile, declared plans to rule their territory in the absence of the legitimate king. At the time of the first governing junta of Chile in 1810 the Valdivian governor, an Irishman , Albert Alexander Eagar, led

5320-409: The city was reduced after a large team of workers opened a drainage channel in the landslide; water levels of the lake slowly returned to normal levels. There is evidence that a similar landslide and earthquake happened in 1575. After the Great Chilean earthquake Valdivia's economy and political status declined. Much of the city was destroyed and many inhabitants left. The 1973 Chilean coup d'état and

5415-430: The city, such as Maha Vial , Iván Espinoza Riesco, José Baroja , Aldo Astete Cuadra, Efraín Miranda Cárdenas, among others. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute , the commune of Valdivia spans an area of 1,015.6 km (392 sq mi) and has 140,559 inhabitants (68,510 men and 72,049 women). Of these, 129,952 (92.5%) lived in urban areas and 10,607 (7.5%) in rural areas . Between

5510-588: The city, where it was common that children first learned to speak German before Spanish. Nowadays, the German language is preserved by the Instituto Alemán Carlos Anwandter one of Latin America 's oldest German schools. German descendants also form Valdivia's oldest fire station Germania, located in Isla Teja. German immigrants and their descendants formed their social club Club Alemán, which after World War II changed names to Club la Unión . German workers once had their own club simply called El Alemán (The German). Valdivia also hosts Bierfest Valdivia ,

5605-417: The coast, on the Calle-calle river, is a German town. Everywhere you meet German faces, German signboards and placards alongside the Spanish. There is a large German school, a church and various Vereine , large shoe-factories, and, of course, breweries... The economic prosperity of Valdivia continued throughout the first half of the 20th century. In 1917 the first "Valdivian Week" (Spanish: Semana Valdiviana )

5700-409: The colonial period, Valdivia was essentially a military camp, a walled city surrounded by hostile natives. The coastal defenses and their garrisons made up a large part of the population. After several fires and earthquakes, nearly all buildings from this period were destroyed, with the exception of the military defenses. Valdivia's best known historical landmarks are now the two towers which were part of

5795-460: The community, participation in Chilean society, and the individual's choice towards the traditional or modern/urban way of life. There is no consensus among experts regarding the relation between Mapuche and other indigenous languages of South America and it is classified as a language isolate , or more conservatively, an unclassified language while researchers await more definitive evidence linking it to other languages. The origin of Mapuche

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5890-457: The death of Pedro de Valdivia in 1553 halted the Spanish conquests for a while Osorno and Castro were established in Huilliche territory in 1558 and 1567 respectively. The Spanish defeat by Mapuches in the battle of Curalaba in 1598 triggered a general uprising that led to the destruction of all Spanish cities in Huilliche territory except Castro. The portion of Futahuillimapu south of Maipué River became largely depopulated following

5985-405: The development of salmon aquaculture in the 1990s, but to a much lesser extent than places such as Puerto Montt and Chiloé. Valdivia is often promoted for its unique characteristics, that make it different from other cities in Chile: Valdivia has an early Spanish colonial past, plus a later history of German colonization . Both eras left visible landmarks such as the forts of Corral Bay and

6080-451: The end a jury picks the winners in different categories. The parade is by tradition started by a boat which presents la reina de los ríos . In recent years Valdivians have showed an increasing interest in nature and ecotourism . An example of this was the formation of Acción por los Cisnes an ecologist group formed to protect black-necked swans and the natural environment that surrounds the city, particularly wetlands created or expanded by

6175-406: The extent that a single word can require a translation that produces a complete sentence. trari- SURROUND - mansun- ox- pa- CIS - rke- SURPRISE - la- NEG - (y)- ( E )- a- FUT - y- IND - Huilliche The Huilliche ( Spanish pronunciation: [wi.ˈʝi.tʃe] ), Huiliche or Huilliche-Mapuche are the southern partiality of

6270-415: The first inhabitants of Valdivia and Chile travelled to America by watercraft and not across a land-bridge in the Bering Strait . During at least the Middle Archaic , southern Chile was populated by indigenous groups who shared a common lithic culture called the Chan-Chan Complex , named for the archaeological site of Chan-Chan located some 35 km north of Valdivia along the coast. According to

6365-416: The fort, with the last starving survivors rescued by ship. The Dutch governor of the East Indies Hendrik Brouwer , learned about the situation in Valdivia, and decided to establish a base there for further attacks against the Viceroy of Peru. This plan was well accepted as the Netherlands was at war with Spain. The Dutch had previously taken the North of Brazil from the Spanish-Portuguese crown , and

6460-406: The gold from these sources as " gold from Valdivia. " Many merchants of Lima had envoys in Valdivia, and the city developed a large ship building industry. It produced the largest ships in the Kingdom of Chile . After the demoralising Battle of Curalaba in 1598, in which the Mapuche killed governor Óñez de Loyola , the Mapuche and Huilliche made a mass rebellion. The Indians destroyed or forced

6555-493: The idea of creating a South American empire was attractive. In spite of his advanced age, Hendrik Brouwer left his post as governor in the East Indies to personally lead the expedition. The Dutch fleet destroyed the Fort of Carelmapu and the city of Castro before arriving at Corral Bay at the mouth of the Valdivia River. Hendrik Brouwer died the 7th of August in Puerto Inglés while waiting for better winds to sail north to Valdivia. John Maurice of Nassau while in charge of

6650-409: The land') or Mapudungun (from mapu 'land' and dungun 'speak, speech', meaning 'the speech of the land'; also spelled Mapuzugun and Mapudungu ) is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people. It was formerly known as Araucanian , the name given to the Mapuche by the Spaniards; the Mapuche avoid it as

6745-531: The local Huilliche language because they considered it "more beautiful". Around the same time, Governor Narciso de Santa María complained that Spanish settlers in the islands could not speak Spanish properly, but could speak Veliche, and that this second language was more used. Mapudungun was once the main language spoken in central Chile. The sociolinguistic situation of the Mapuche has changed rapidly. Now, nearly all of Mapuche people are bilingual or monolingual in Spanish. The degree of bilingualism depends on

6840-402: The military junta reorganized the political divisions of Chile and declared Valdivia a province of the Los Lagos Region with Puerto Montt as the regional capital. Many Valdivians resented the decision, and felt theirs should have been the legitimate regional capital—while Valdivia was founded in 1552, and had resisted pirate attacks , hostile natives and several earthquakes, Puerto Montt was

6935-547: The military's actions that followed brought dozens of detainees to Valdivia and saw the imposing of a nationwide curfew . In October a group of 12 young men, among them José Gregorio Liendo , were brought from the Complejo Forestal y Maderero Panguipulli in the Andes to be executed in Valdivia by firing squad due to alleged participation in the assault on Neltume police station and "guerrilla activities". By 1974,

7030-676: The north Atlantic to north Pacific no longer had to pass through the Straits of Magellan or visit any Chilean port. On May 22, 1960, Chile suffered the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, rating 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale , with Valdivia being the most affected city. The earthquake generated devastating tsunamis that affected Japan, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii . Spanish-colonial forts around Valdivia were severely damaged, while soil subsidence destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers, and created wetlands of

7125-639: The northern coast of Perú , and Uru-Chipaya ( Uruquilla and Chipaya ) languages, which are spoken by those who currently inhabit the islands of Lake Titicaca and peoples living in Oruro Department in Bolivia , respectively. This hypothesis was later rejected by Campbell in the same year. The research carried out by Mary R. Key in 1978 considered Mapuche to be related to other languages of Chile : specifically Kawésgar language and Yagán language which were both spoken by nomadic canoer communities from

7220-405: The people of Chiloé. Their ponchos were described by Moraleds as less pleasing ("vistosos") than those of Chiloé. A new battle took place between Spanish and Huilliche forces in 1759 near the shores of río Bueno. The outcome of the battle has been subject ot different interpretations. The battle of 1759 was an exception to the overall policy of befriending indigenous communities on behalf of

7315-534: The polygenetic theory of the French scholar Paul Rivet, people from Melanesia, Polynesia, Australia and northern Asia arrived, in a period between 30 and 4 millennia ago, to the coasts of the New World, sailing in improvised boats. One of the most suggestive hypotheses of the entire polygenetic theory is the probable trip that some members of the Japanese Jōmon culture made to the New World and its strong influence on

7410-417: The population, the presence of descendants of migrants of German origin and of Spanish origin also stands out, colonies that are grouped into different social, educational, sports and cultural institutions. Mapuche language Mapuche ( / m ə ˈ p uː tʃ i / mə- POO -che , Mapuche and Spanish: [maˈputʃe] ; from mapu 'land' and che 'people', meaning 'the people of

7505-448: The river site, such as concerts, sporting events, and other entertainment. To mark and celebrate the end of the touristic summer months, halfway through February all entertainment reaches its climax with the celebration of noche Valdiviana (Valdivian night). During this night many local groups and communities present themselves on boats during a night parade over the river. Every boat has its own theme related with one theme of that year. At

7600-415: The south of Chile (the language's stronghold) are "highly competent" in the language. Speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. In Cautín Province and Llifén contact with Mapuche language may be the reason why there is aa lack of yeísmo among some Spanish speakers. The language has also influenced the Spanish lexicon within

7695-610: The southeast of Chiloé Island . The mythological cosmologies of the Huilliche has many parallels in the indigenous religions of the Central Andes including the Inca religion . In the 1540s Spanish conquereros led by Pedro de Valdivia arrived in Central Chile from newly conquered Peru . Between 1549 and 1553 the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche territory and one in Huilliche territory: Valdivia . Albeit

7790-475: The strategic importance of Valdivia and decided to repopulate and fortify it once and for all. He financed partly the expedition to repopulate Valdivia with his own capital. The contingent in charge of the mission was organized in Peru and consisted of seventeen ships filled with building materials and supplies that astounded contemporaries by its magnitude. The local government of Chile could not secure Valdivia as it

7885-639: The theory of origin of the Mapuche proposed by Ricardo E. Latcham . The Mapudungun spoken in the Argentinian provinces of Neuquen and Río Negro is similar to that of the central dialect group in Chile, while the Ranquel (Rankülche) variety spoken in the Argentinian province of La Pampa is closer to the northern dialect group. Mapuche is a polysynthetic language with noun incorporation and root composition. Broadly speaking this means that words are formed by morpheme agglutination of lexical elements to

7980-656: The time , with 17 forts. During this time it was several times proposed to move the city of Valdivia to Mancera Island . Valdivia's original site, downtown of modern Valdivia was repopulated in 1684. Once Spanish presence in Valdivia was reestablished in 1645 , authorities sent convicts from all-over the Viceroyalty of Peru to construct the Valdivian Fort System . The convicts, many of whom were Afro-Peruvians , became later soldier-settlers once they had served their sentence. Close contacts with indigenous Mapuche meant many soldiers were bilingual in Spanish and Mapudungun . A 1749 census in Valdivia shows that Afro-descendants had

8075-458: The two languages that form that Araucana family along with Huilliche. However, most current linguists maintain a more conservative stance, classifying Mapuche as a language that remains separated from other indigenous languages of South America while its differences and similarities to them are being studied. I II III IV V VI VII VIII Linguist Robert A. Croese divides Mapudungun into eight dialectal sub-groups (I-VIII). Sub-group I

8170-781: The two words. There are thus several ways to write the name of the language: Moulian et al. (2015) argue that the Puquina language influenced Mapuche language long before the rise of the Inca Empire . The influence of Puquine is thought to be the reason for the existence of Mapuche-Aymara-Quechua cognates . The following Pre-Incan cognates have been identified by Moulian et al. : sun ( Mapudungun : antü , Quechua : inti ), moon ( Mapudungun : küllen , Quechua : killa ), warlock ( Mapudungun : kalku , Quechua : kawchu ), salt ( Mapudungun : chadi , Quechua : cachi ) and mother ( Mapudungun : ñuque , Quechua : ñuñu ). This areal linguistic influence may have arrived with

8265-603: The urbanised area of Valdivia as well as in its outskirts. The area around Valdivia may have been populated since 12,000 – 11,800 BC , according to archaeological discoveries in Monte Verde (less than 200 km south of Valdivia), which would place it about a thousand years before the Clovis culture in North America. This challenges the "Clovis First" model of migration to the New World . Researchers speculate that

8360-484: The usage of the Mapuches of Araucanía for the southern Mapuche tribes. Huilliche means 'southerners' (Mapudungun willi 'south' and che 'people'.) A genetic study showed significant affinities between Huilliches and indigenous peoples east of the Andes, which suggests but does not prove a partial origin in present-day Argentina. During the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the mainland Huilliche were generally successful at resisting Spanish encroachment . However, after

8455-466: The way to Osorno, a city that had been repopulated in 1796 by his father Ambrosio O'Higgins . Valdivia had been a province of the General Captaincy of Chile and was in 1826 incorporated as one of the eight provinces of Chile. On February 20, 1835, Valdivia was affected by the worst earthquake in the area in several decades, an event witnessed by Charles Darwin . He also stated that "there

8550-490: The year 2000. However, a 2002 study suggests that only 16% of those who identify as Mapuche speak the language (active speakers) and 18% can only understand it ( passive speakers ). These figures suggest that the total number of active speakers is about 120,000 and that there are slightly more passive speakers of Mapuche in Chile. As of 2013 only 2.4% of urban speakers and 16% of rural speakers use Mapudungun when speaking with children, and only 3.8% of speakers aged 10–19 years in

8645-657: Was a port on the sea and had access to the interior via the network of the Cruces and Calle-Calle rivers, both tributaries of the Valdivia. Ainil may be described as "a kind of little Venice ," as it had large areas of wetlands and canals. Since that period, most of these waterways and wetlands have been drained or filled. The market in Ainil received shellfish and fish from the coast, legumes from Punucapa , and other foods from San José de la Mariquina , an agricultural zone northeast of Valdivia. A remnant of this ancient trade

8740-524: Was celebrated. Chile's oldest beauty contest, "Queen of The Rivers" (Spanish: Reina de Los Ríos ) began the same year. The city evolved as an early tourist center in Chile, while popular songs that named Valdivia and the Calle-Calle River made it better known in Chilean popular culture. The Pedro de Valdivia Bridge crossing the Valdivia River was built in 1954. Valdivia came to be one of the most important industrial centers in Chile together with

8835-478: Was engaged in continuous war with the Mapuches and was deeply dependent on the Real Situado , an annual payment of silver from Potosí to finance the army of Chile. The Valdivia enclave was placed directly under the control of the Viceroyalty of Peru that administered Valdivia from its repopulation in 1645 until 1740. Corral , located on the river entrance to Valdivia, became one of the most fortified bay at

8930-523: Was inhabited by the Huilliche ( Mapudungun for People of the South ). The Huilliche and Mapuche were both referred to by the Spaniards as Araucanos . Their main language was a variant of Mapudungun, the Mapuche language. A large village called Ainil stood where present-day downtown Valdivia has been developed. The Huilliche called the river, Ainilebu (now known as the Valdivia River). Ainil seemed to have been an important trade center; it

9025-423: Was the port of entry for German immigrants who settled in the city and surrounding areas . In 1960, Valdivia was severely damaged by the Great Chilean earthquake , the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, at magnitude 9.5. The earthquake caused c. 2 m of subsidence around Valdivia leaving large areas of former pastures and cultivated fields permanently flooded. Today there are various protected wetlands within

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