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108-864: Prior to the park, the area served as a temporary burial site of the Santo Tomas Internment Camp during the World War II . The Plaza Benavides, the largest park in the Manila campus, is bounded to the northwest by the Plaza Mayor , to the southwest by Osmeña Drive, to the northeast by the Quezon Drive, and to the southeast by the Plaza Intramuros . The center walkway is called the Rizal Lane, more popularly known as

216-603: A Mohawk and a Cherokee . The British were divided about equally between male and female. The imbalance in gender among the Americans was primarily due to the fact that, anticipating the war, many wives and children of American men employed in the Philippines had returned to the US before December 8, 1941. A few people had been sent to the Philippines from China to escape the war in that country. Some had arrived only days before

324-564: A "delightful spot" on arrival, conditions at Los Baños became increasingly crowded and difficult toward the end of the war, mirroring the situation at Santo Tomas. The population of Los Baños totaled 2,132, including a three-day-old baby, when it was liberated by American soldiers and Filipino guerrillas on February 23, 1945. As the war in the Pacific turned against Japan, living conditions in Santo Tomas became worse and Japanese rule over

432-753: A "policy of close and voluntary cooperation … to secure liberties" and "to retain the greatest degree of self government possible." The cooperation of the internees permitted the Japanese to control the camp with a minimum of resources and personnel, amounting at times to only 17 administrators and 8 guards. The number of internees in February 1942 amounted to 3,200 Americans, 900 British (including Canadian , Australian , and other Commonwealth people), 40 Poles , 30 Dutch , and individuals from Spain , Mexico , Nicaragua , Cuba , Russia , Belgium , Norway , Sweden , Denmark , China , and Burma . About 100 of

540-543: A Japanese woman and took up residence in Tokyo and adopted a son. He lived in Tokyo the rest of his life. Earl Carroll defended himself and other camp leaders from allegations of collaboration in a series of newspaper articles in which he claimed the internees had waged a "secret war" against the Japanese. That view was generally accepted by Americans, and most internees were given a campaign ribbon for "contributing materially to

648-457: A business executive named Earl Carroll as head of the internee government and he selected five, later nine, men he knew to serve as an executive committee. They appointed a British missionary who had lived in Japan, Ernest Stanley, as interpreter. Santo Tomas quickly became a "miniature city." The internees created several committees to manage affairs, including a police force, set up a hospital with

756-519: A death rate about three times that of the United States in the 1940s. People over 60 years old were the most vulnerable. They comprised 18% of the total population, but suffered 64% of deaths. The Santo Tomas internees began to hear news of American military action near the Philippines in August 1944. Clandestine radios in the camp enabled them to keep track of major events. On September 21 came

864-499: A later date. During the 1360s, the Javanese -centered Hindu-Buddhist Shivaite empire of Majapahit briefly ruled over Luzon as recorded in the epic poem Nagarakretagama , which reports imperial colonies in the Philippines at Saludong ( Manila ) and Solot ( Sulu ). Eventually, the kingdoms of Luzon regained independence from Majapahit after the 1365 Battle of Manila. Sulu also reestablished independence and in vengeance assaulted

972-633: A million souls. People from the Philippines, primarily from Luzon, were recruited by France (then in alliance with Spain ), first to defend Indo-Chinese converts to Christianity being persecuted by their native governments. Eventually, Filipino mercenaries helped the French conquer Vietnam and Laos and to re-establish Cambodia as a French Protectorate. This process culminated in the establishment of French Cochinchina , centered in Saigon . After many years of Spanish occupation and resistance to reform,

1080-601: A prince from Mecca who became the Sultan of Brunei , a nation that then expanded its realms from Borneo to the Philippines and set up the Kingdom of Maynila as its puppet-state. The invasion of Brunei spread Chinese royal descent like Ong Sum Ping 's kin and Arab dynasties too into the Philippines like the clan of Sultan Sharif Ali . However, other Luzon kingdoms resisted Islam, like the Wangdom of Pangasinan . It had remained

1188-420: A tributary state of China and was a largely Sinified kingdom, which maintained trade with Japan. The Polity of Cainta also existed as a fortified city-state, armed with walls and cannons. The Portuguese were the first European explorers who recorded it in their charts as Luçonia or Luçon , calling the inhabitants Luções . Edmund Roberts , who visited Luzon in the early 19th century, wrote that Luzon

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1296-485: Is covered by 8 administrative regions , 30 provinces and, as of 2014 , 68 cities (8 regions, 38 provinces and 71 cities if associated islands are included). Table note(s): Luzon is part of the Philippine Mobile Belt , a fast deforming plate boundary zone (Gervasio, 1967) hemmed in between two opposing subduction zones, the west-dipping Philippine Trench - East Luzon Trench subduction zone, and

1404-811: Is dominated by the Bicol Peninsula , a mountainous and narrow region extending approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) southeast from the Tayabas Isthmus in Quezon province to the San Bernardino Strait along the coasts of Sorsogon . The area is home to several volcanoes , the most famous of which is the 2,460-metre (8,070 ft) high symmetrically shaped Mayon Volcano in Albay province. The Sierra Madre range has its southern limits at Quezon province. Ultra-prominent mountains dot

1512-554: Is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription , which names places in and around Manila Bay and also mentions Medan , a place in Indonesia. These coastal Philippine kingdoms were thalassocracies , based on trade with neighboring Asian political entities, and structured by leases between village rulers ( Datu ) and landlords ( Lakan ) or Rajahs , by whom tributes were extracted and taxes were levied. There

1620-499: The "Miss U" spy network. On January 5, the four men were removed from the camp by Japanese military police. Their fate was unknown until February when their bodies were found. They had been executed. The U.S. rushed to liberate the prisoner of war and internee camps in the Philippines due to a common belief that the Japanese would massacre all their prisoners, military and civilian. A small American force pushed rapidly forward and, on February 3, 1945, at 8:40 p.m., internees heard

1728-614: The Andres Novales uprising occurred and it was inspired by the Latin American Wars of Independence . Novales' uprising was primarily supported by Mexicans living in the Philippines as well as immigrant Latinos from the now independent nations of Colombia , Venezuela , Peru , Chile , Argentina and Costa Rica . Although the uprising failed it inspired the Cavite Mutiny , the suppression of which, lead to

1836-528: The Battle of Manila . American intelligence investigated and detained about 50 internees suspected of being collaborators or spies for the Japanese. Most were cleared, but a few, although repatriated, had their cases referred to the FBI . Ernest Stanley, the interpreter, was reportedly investigated, but cleared of charges. He later went to Japan as an employee of the U.S. Army and became a Japanese citizen. He married

1944-582: The Cagayan to the north, and the Pampanga to the south. In the middle of the plain rises the solitary Mount Arayat . The western coasts of Central Luzon are typically flat extending east from the coastline to the Zambales Mountains , the site of Mount Pinatubo , made famous because of its enormous 1991 eruption . These mountains extend to the sea in the north, forming Lingayen Gulf , and to

2052-505: The Federal Bureau of Investigation and General Douglas MacArthur objected to proposed prisoner exchanges and the Japanese refused to allow more aid to be delivered without such exchanges. In February 1944, the Japanese army took over direct control of the camp and dismissed the civilian administrators. Armed guards patrolled the perimeter of the camp and contacts with the outside world for supplies were terminated. The food ration

2160-597: The Indian Ocean , the Strait of Malacca , the South China Sea , and the medieval maritime principalities of the Philippines . His father and wife carried on his maritime trading business after his death. Another important Malacca trader was Curia de Raja who also hailed from Luzon. The "surname" of "de Raja" or "diraja" could indicate that Regimo and Curia, and their families, were of noble or royal descent as

2268-608: The Japanese interned enemy civilians , mostly Americans , in World War II . The campus of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila was utilized for the camp, which housed more than 3,000 internees from January 1942 until February 1945. Conditions for the internees deteriorated during the war and by the time of the liberation of the camp by the U.S. Army many of the internees were near death from lack of food . Japan attacked

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2376-459: The Pacific War , the Philippines were considered to be of great strategic importance because their capture by Japan would pose a significant threat to the U.S. As a result, 135,000 troops and 227 aircraft were stationed in the Philippines by October 1941. Luzon was captured by Imperial Japanese forces in 1942 during their campaign to capture the Philippines . General Douglas MacArthur —who

2484-877: The United States in the Philippine–American War which the Republic's forces lost due to its diplomatic isolation (no foreign nation recognized the First Republic) as well as due to the numerical superiority of the American military . The Americans then set up the cool mountain city of Baguio as a summer retreat for its officials. The Americans also rebuilt the capital, Manila, and established American military bases in Olongapo and Angeles cities mainly Clark Airbase and Subic Naval Base . During

2592-501: The Visayas . The name Luzon is thought to derive from ᜎᜓᜐᜓᜅ᜔ lusong , a Tagalog word referring to a particular kind of large wooden mortar used in dehusking rice. A 2008 research paper by Eulito Bautista and Evelyn Javier provides an image of a lusong, explaining: Traditional milling was accomplished in the 1900s by pounding the palay with a wooden pestle in a stone or wooden mortar called lusong. The first pounding takes off

2700-623: The quadricentennial celebration , but the Benavides Monument's raised circular base and the path that contained the Chinese tombstone were left relatively unaltered. At the middle entrance of the Plaza Benavides from Plaza Mayor lies a Chinese tombstone. The tombstone, which dates back to 1818, measures 67 cm x 130 cm. It reads: The Benavides Monument serves as the park's main attraction. The statue of Miguel de Benavides

2808-541: The 12th century, and local Tagalog , Kapampangan and Pangasinan potters had marked each jar with Baybayin letters denoting the particular urn used and the kiln the jars were manufactured in. Certain kilns were renowned over others; prices depended on the reputation of the kiln. Of this flourishing trade, the Burnay jars of Ilocos are the only large clay jar manufactured in Luzon today with origins from this time. In

2916-662: The 16th century saw the incorporation of the Luções people and the breaking up of their kingdoms and the establishment of the Las Islas Filipinas with its capital Cebu , which was moved to Manila following the defeat of the local Rajah Sulayman in 1570. Under Spain, Luzon also came to be known as the Nueva Castilla or the New Castile . In Spanish times, Luzon became the focal point for trade between

3024-496: The 47 Japanese soldiers in the building would release their hostages but retain their arms and be escorted by the Americans 1st Cavalry Division led by 1st Lieutenant Burt Kennedy to Malacanang Palace thinking it was still in Japanese hands. Stanley led the Japanese out of the building and accompanied them to their place of release, an event recorded by a photograph that appeared in Life magazine. The Japanese prison unit left camp in

3132-714: The 8 participating schools passed through the Arch of the Centuries and Rizal Lane in a parade leading to the Plaza Mayor. 14°36′33″N 120°59′25″E  /  14.6091°N 120.9902°E  / 14.6091; 120.9902 Santo Tomas Internment Camp Santo Tomas Internment Camp , also known as the Manila Internment Camp , was the largest of several camps in the Philippines in which

3240-630: The Americas and Asia. The Manila Galleons constructed in the Bicol region brought silver mined from Peru and Mexico to Manila. The silver was used to purchase Asian commercial goods like Chinese silk , Indian gems and Indonesian spices , which were then exported back to the Americas. The Chinese valued Luzon so much, in that when talking about Spain and the Spanish-Americas, they preferred to call it as "Dao Lusong" (Greater Luzon) while

3348-552: The Cordillera Central mountain ranges is the large Cagayan Valley . This region, which is known for being the second largest producer of rice and the country's top corn-producer, serves as the basin for the Cagayan River , the longest in the Philippines. Along the southern limits of the Cordillera Central lies the lesser-known Caraballo Mountains . These mountains form a link between the Cordillera Central and

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3456-477: The Grinnell government by saying he was going to write a book titled "Mine Camp" and dedicate it to Grinnell. Santo Tomas became increasingly crowded as internees from outlying camps and islands were transferred into the camp. With the population in Santo Tomas approaching 5,000, the Japanese on May 9, 1943, announced that 800 men would be transferred to a new camp, Los Banos , 37 miles (68 km) distant,

3564-412: The Japanese allowed the camp to accept food donations from local charities or permitted internee men working outside the camp to forage for wild plants and fruit. Gardens, both private and community, for food had been planted shortly after the internees arrived at Santo Tomas and, to combat the growing food shortages, the Japanese captors demanded that the internees grow more food for themselves, although

3672-477: The Japanese attack. The internees were diverse: business executives, mining engineers, bankers, plantation owners, seamen, shoemakers, waiters, beachcombers, prostitutes, retired soldiers from the Spanish–American War , 40 years earlier, missionaries, and others. Some came into the camp with their pockets full of money and numerous friends on the outside; others had only the clothes on their backs. During

3780-411: The Japanese for the right to elect their leadership and on July 27, 1942, an election was held. Earl Carroll declined to be a candidate. After the votes were counted, the Japanese exercised their prerogative by announcing that Carroll C. Grinnell, who had placed sixth in the election, was appointed as the chairman of a seven-person executive committee. Grinnell, a business executive, would be the leader of

3888-650: The Japanese invaded several locations in northern Luzon and advanced rapidly southward toward Manila , capital and largest city of the Philippines. The U.S. army, consisting of about 20,000 Americans and 80,000 Filipinos, retreated onto the Bataan Peninsula . On December 26, 1941, Manila was declared an open city and all American military forces abandoned the city leaving civilians behind. On January 2, 1942, Japanese forces entered and occupied Manila. They ordered all Americans and British citizens to remain in their homes until they could be registered. On January 5,

3996-478: The Japanese provided for internees was 1,500 calories per person per day, less than the modern-day recommendation of 2,000 calories. The Japanese abolished the Executive Committee and appointed Grinnell, Carroll and an Englishman, S. L. Lloyd, as "agents of the internees" and liaison officers with the Japanese. Food shortages became steadily more serious throughout 1944. After July 1944, "the food at

4104-588: The Japanese published a warning in the Manila newspapers. "Any one who inflicts, or attempts to inflict, an injury upon Japanese soldiers or individuals shall be shot to death." But if the assailant could not be found the Japanese "would hold ten influential persons as hostages." On May 6, 1942, Gen. Jonathan Wainwright who took over the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) after Gen. Douglas MacArthur 's departure, surrendered

4212-513: The Lover's Lane. Parallel to Rizal Lane is Burgos Lane on the left and M.H. Del Pilar Lane on the right. The three lanes were named in 1960 after UST alumni José Burgos , José Rizal , and Marcelo H. del Pilar . They begin at the Plaza Mayor and end at the Plaza Intramuros . The lanes have alternating terracotta, gray, and white colored cobblestones arranged in an interplay of squares and vertical lines. The plaza underwent an extensive renovation for

4320-667: The Majapahit province of Poni ( Brunei ) before a fleet from the capital drove them out. In 1405, the Yongle Emperor appointed a Chinese governor of Luzon, Ko Ch'a-lao, during Zheng He 's voyages . China also had vassals among the leaders in the archipelago. China attained ascendancy in trade with the area in Yongle's reign. Afterwards, some parts of Luzon were Islamized when the former Majapahit province of Poni broke free, converted to Islam , and imported Sharif Ali ,

4428-585: The Philippines on December 8, 1941, the same day as its raid on Pearl Harbor (on the Asian side of the International Date Line ). American fighter aircraft were on patrol to meet an expected attack, but ground fog delayed the Japanese aircraft on Formosa . When the attack finally came, most of the American air force was caught on the ground, and destroyed by Japanese bombers. On the same day,

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4536-634: The Portuguese conquest in 1511. Antonio Pigafetta notes that one of them was in command of the Brunei fleet in 1521. However, the Luções did not only fight on the side of the Muslims. Pinto says they were also apparently among the natives of the Philippines who fought the Muslims in 1538. On Mainland Southeast Asia , Lusung/Luções warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD. At

4644-508: The Sierra Madre Oriental, Angat, Zambales , Central Cordillera of Luzon , Bicol, and Catanduanes Island blocks. Using seismic and geodetic data, Luzon was modeled by Galgana et al. (2007) as a series of six micro blocks or micro plates (separated by subduction zones and intra-arc faults), all translating and rotating in different directions, with maximum velocities ~100 mm/yr NW with respect to Sundaland/Eurasia. As of

4752-663: The Sierra Madre mountain ranges, separating the Cagayan Valley from the Central Luzon plains. The central section of Luzon is characterized by a flat terrain, known as the Central Luzon plain , the largest in the island in terms of land area. The plain, approximately 11,000 square kilometres (4,200 sq mi) in size, is the country's largest producer of rice, and is irrigated by two major rivers;

4860-549: The Spanish, then settled in Cainta, Rizal . Newcomers who were impoverished Mexicans and peninsulares were accused of undermining the submission of the natives. In 1774, authorities from Bulacan, Tondo, Laguna Bay, and other areas surrounding Manila reported with consternation that discharged soldiers and deserters (from Mexico, Spain and Peru) were providing Indios military training for the weapons that had been disseminated all over

4968-422: The U.S., including long-time residents and mixed-blood families who wished to remain in the Philippines. Tensions between the remaining internees and the American military were high. Slowly, in March and April 1945 the camp emptied out, but it was not until September that Santo Tomas finally closed and the last internees boarded a ship for the U.S. or sought out places to live in Manila, almost completely destroyed in

5076-627: The United States and the United Kingdom. Most internees, however, served a full 37 months in captivity. The Japanese segregated the internees by sex. Thirty to 50 people were crowded into small classrooms in university buildings. The allotment of space for each individual was between 1.5 and 2 square metres (16 to 22 square feet). Bathrooms were scarce. Twelve hundred men living in the main building had 13 toilets and 12 showers. Lines were normal for toilets and meals. Internees with money were able to buy food and built huts, "shanties," of bamboo and palm fronds in open ground where they could take refuge during

5184-450: The United States for most internees began on February 22. Although food became adequate with the arrival of American soldiers, life continued to be difficult. The lingering effects of near-starvation for so many months saw 48 people die in the camp in February, the highest death total for any month. Most internees could not leave the camp because of a lack of housing in Manila. The American military pressured all American internees to return to

5292-439: The United States, Hong Kong, Singapore and Saudi Arabia . Eventually, the People Power Revolution led by Corazon Aquino and Cardinal Jaime Sin , removed Marcos and his cronies from power and they fled to Hawaii where the US granted them asylum. The following administrations are subsequently managing the political and economic recovery of the Philippines with the particular aim of spreading development outside of Luzon and into

5400-416: The University of Santo Tomas, a walled compound 19.5 hectares (48 acres) in size. Thousands of people, mostly Americans and British, staked out living and sleeping quarters for themselves and their families in the buildings of the University . The Japanese mostly let the foreigners fend for themselves except for appointing room monitors and ordering a 7:30 p.m. roll call every night. The Japanese selected

5508-409: The abundant medical personnel available, and began providing morning and evening meals to more than 1,000 internees who did not have food or money to buy it. Thousands of Filipinos and non-interned foreigners from neutral countries gathered around the fenced compound every day and passed food, money, letters, and other goods across the fence to the internees. The Japanese put a stop to that by ordering

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5616-412: The camp for intelligence and propaganda. In return the camp obtained greater autonomy, security, and a higher standard of living." Luzon Luzon ( / l uː ˈ z ɒ n / loo- ZON , Tagalog: [luˈson] ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines . Located in the northern portion of the Philippine archipelago , it is the economic and political center of

5724-419: The camps became extremely inadequate, weight loss, weakness, edema, paresthesia and beriberi were experienced by most adults." Internees ate insects and wild plants, but the internee government declared it illegal for internees to pick weeds for personal, rather than community, use. One internee was jailed by the internee police for 15 days for harvesting pigweed. Some of the hardship could have been alleviated had

5832-436: The compound were killed in the artillery barrage, including 16 internees, including Rev. Walter Brooks Foley, pastor of Union Church in Manila, who died on February 7. Mary Rosengrant Foley, his wife, was badly injured. The evacuation of the internees began on February 11. Sixty-four U.S. Army and Navy nurses interned in Santo Tomas were the first to leave that day and board airplanes for the United States. Flights and ships to

5940-505: The compound, destroying many of the shanties, flooding buildings and destroying much-needed food and other supplies. The distress caused by the typhoon, however, was soon relieved by the receipt in the camp of Red Cross food parcels just before Christmas. Every internee, including children, received a parcel weighing 48 pounds (21.8 kg) and containing luxuries such as butter, chocolate, and canned meat. Vital medicine, vitamins, surgical instruments, and soap were also received. These were

6048-400: The country . In this usage, it includes the Luzon Mainland , the Batanes and Babuyan groups of islands to the north, Polillo Islands to the east, and the outlying islands of Catanduanes , Marinduque and Mindoro , among others, to the south. The islands of Masbate , Palawan and Romblon are also included, although these three are sometimes grouped with another of the island groups,

6156-401: The day, although the Japanese insisted that all internees sleep in their assigned rooms at night. Soon there were several hundred shanties and their owners constituted a "camp aristocracy." The Japanese attempted to enforce a ban on sex, marriage, and displays of affection among the internees. They often complained to the Executive Committee about "inappropriate" relations between men and women in

6264-491: The death certificates be altered to eliminate malnutrition and starvation as causes of death. On January 30, four additional deaths occurred. That same day the Japanese confiscated much of the food left in the camp for their soldiers and the "cold fear of death" gripped the weakened internees. The Japanese were preparing for a last-ditch battle with American forces advancing on Manila. From January 1942 until March 1945, 390 total deaths from all causes in Santo Tomas were recorded,

6372-440: The early 1300s the Chinese annals, Nanhai zhi , reported that Hindu Brunei invaded or administered Sarawak and Sabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms of Butuan , Sulu , and in Luzon: Ma-i (Mindoro) and Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-day Manila ); Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon or Zamboanga ), Yachen 啞陳 Oton (Part of the Madja-as Kedatuan), and 文杜陵 Wenduling (present-day Mindanao ), which would regain their independence at

6480-467: The east-dipping north–south trending Manila Trench - Negros Trench- Cotabato Trench . The Philippine Sea Plate subducts under eastern Luzon along the East Luzon Trench and the Philippine Trench, while the South China Sea basin, part of the Eurasian Plate , subducts under western Luzon along the Manila Trench. The North-Southeastern trending braided left-lateral strike-slip Philippine Fault System traverses Luzon, from Quezon province and Bicol to

6588-435: The fence of the compound. The Japanese soldiers took refuge in the large, three-story Education Building, taking 200 internees hostage, including internee leader Earl Carroll, and interpreter Ernest Stanley. Carroll and Stanley were ordered to accompany several Japanese soldiers to a meeting with American forces to negotiate a safe passage for the Japanese out of Santo Tomas in exchange for a release of their 200 hostages. During

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6696-492: The fence to be shielded by bamboo mats but they permitted parcels to enter the compound after being searched. However, the loose Japanese control of the camp had teeth. Two young Englishmen and an Australian who escaped from the camp were captured, beaten, tortured, and executed on February 15. Carroll, Stanley, and the monitors of the two rooms where the men had been accommodated were forced to watch. Thereafter, no escapes from Santo Tomas, which would have been relatively easy given

6804-489: The first American air raid in the Manila area. American forces invaded the Philippine Island of Leyte on October 20, 1944, and advanced on Japanese forces occupying other islands in the country. American airplanes began to bomb Manila on a daily basis. On December 23, 1944, the Japanese arrested Grinnell and three other camp leaders for unknown reasons. Speculation was that they were arrested because they were in contact with Filipino soldiers and guerrilla resistance forces and

6912-418: The following number of tributes, with each tribute representing a family of 6-7, and he reported 90,243 native Filipino tributes; 10,512 Chinese (Sangley) and mixed Chinese Filipino mestizo tributes; and 10,517 mixed Spanish Filipino mestizo tributes. Pure Spaniards are not counted as they are exempt from tribute. Out of these, Fr. Joaqin Martinez de Zuñiga estimated a total population count exceeding half

7020-446: The hull and further pounding removes the bran but also breaks most grains. Further winnowing with a bamboo tray (bilao) separates the hull from the rice grains. This traditional hand-pounding chore, although very laborious and resulted in a lot of broken rice, required two to three skilled men and women to work harmoniously and was actually a form of socializing among young folks in the villages. In old Latin, Italian, and Portuguese maps,

7128-469: The internees at Santo Tomas was small in numbers, and the Japanese still had soldiers near the compound. Fighting went on for several days. The internees received food and medical treatment but were not allowed to leave Santo Tomas. Registration of them for return to their countries of origin began. On February 7, General Douglas MacArthur visited the compound, an event that was accompanied by Japanese shelling. That night and again on February 10, 28 people in

7236-400: The internees for the duration of the war. Grinnell's leadership was controversial. He appeared to many of the internees to be too authoritative in ruling them and too acquiescent to the Japanese, banning community dances, building a recreational shack for the Japanese guards, and setting up an internee court and jail for offenders. Dave Harvey, the most popular entertainer in the camp, satirized

7344-476: The internees more oppressive. Prices inflated on soap, toilet paper, and meat as the supply diminished at camp markets and stores. Those without money mostly went without food, although a fund for destitute internees was established. Meat began to disappear from the communal kitchens in August 1943 and by the end of the year there was no meat at all. A blow to internee living standards was a typhoon on November 14, 1943, which dumped 69 cm (27 inches) of rain on

7452-434: The internees were tolerable with no serious outbreaks of disease, malnutrition, or other symptoms of poor conditions. At first, most internees believed that their imprisonment would only last a few weeks, anticipating that the United States would quickly defeat Japan. As news of the surrender of American forces at Bataan and Corregidor seeped into the camp, the internees settled in for a long stay. The internees petitioned

7560-465: The internees, on a 1,100 calorie per day ration by November 1944 were less capable of hard labor. In January 1945, a doctor reported that the average loss of weight among male internees had been 24 kg (53 pounds) during the three years at Santo Tomas, 32.5% of average body weight. (40% loss of normal body weight will usually result in death.) That month, eight deaths among internees were attributed to malnutrition, but Japanese officials demanded that

7668-420: The island is often called "Luçonia" or "Luconia." Luções, [luˈsõjʃ] (also Luzones in Spanish ) was a demonym used by Portuguese sailors in Malaysia during the early 1500s, referring to the Kapampangan and Tagalog people who lived in Manila Bay , which was then called Lusong ( Kapampangan : Lusung , Portuguese : Luçon ), from which Luzon was also derived. The term

7776-571: The island, which encompasses most of the Ilocos Region , is characterized by a flat terrain extending east from the coastline toward the Cordillera Central mountains . The Cordillera mountain range, which feature the island's north-central section, is covered in a mixture of tropical pine forests and montane rainforests , and is the site of the island's highest mountain, Mount Pulag , rising at 2,922 metres. The range provides

7884-682: The landscape, which include Mount Isarog and Mount Iriga in Camarines Sur , and Mount Bulusan in Sorsogon . The peninsula 's coastline features several smaller peninsulas, gulfs and bays , which include Lamon Bay , San Miguel Bay , Lagonoy Gulf , Ragay Gulf , and Sorsogon Bay . Several outlying islands near mainland Luzon are considered part of the Luzon island group . The largest include Palawan , Mindoro , Masbate , Catanduanes , Marinduque , Romblon and Polillo . The island

7992-524: The largest lake in the country. The 949-square-kilometre (366 sq mi) lake is drained into Manila Bay by the Pasig River , one of the most important rivers in the country due to its historical significance and because it runs through the center of Metro Manila . Located 20 kilometres (12 mi) southwest of Laguna de Bay is Taal Lake , a crater lake containing the Taal Volcano ,

8100-569: The main port for Luzon and many Mexican soldiers and sailors were stationed in the naval garrisons there. When the Spanish evacuated from Ternate , Indonesia; they settled the Papuan refugees in Ternate, Cavite which was named after their evacuated homeland. After the short British Occupation of Manila , the Indian Sepoy soldiers that mutinied against their British commanders and joined

8208-773: The martyrdoms of Priests, Gomburza and the subsequent execution of the reformist and hero, Jose Rizal . Reeling against this, the Philippine Revolution against Spain erupted in Cavite and spread all throughout Luzon and the Philippines. Consequently, the First Philippine Republic was established in Malolos, Bulacan . In the meantime, Spain sold the Philippines to the United States and the First Philippine Republic resisted

8316-411: The meeting between the Americans, Filipinos and Japanese, a Japanese officer named Abiko reached into a pouch on his back, apparently for a hand grenade, and an American soldier shot and wounded him. Abiko was especially hated by the internees. He was carried away by a mob of enraged internees, kicked and slashed with knives, and thrown out of a hospital bed onto the floor. He died a few hours later. In

8424-483: The more isolated provinces of the Visayas and Mindanao . During the administration of Ferdinand Marcos' son, Bongbong Marcos , Luzon became a destination of American and Japanese investments, it being the location of the Luzon Economic Corridor. Luzon island alone has an area of 109,964.9 square kilometres (42,457.7 sq mi), making it the world's 15th largest island . It is bordered on

8532-459: The morning of February 5. The formation got lost, and upon reaching Legarda Street near present day Nagtahan Flyover, the Japanese prison guards headed by Col. Toshio Hayashi, were ambushed by Filipino guerrillas. The angry crowd joined in later and 63 Japanese troops were killed. The total number of internees liberated at Santo Tomas was 3,785, of which 2,870 were Americans and most of the remainder were British. The American force that liberated

8640-406: The nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila , as well as Quezon City , the country's most populous city. With a population of 64 million as of 2021 , it contains 52.5% of the country's total population and is the 4th most populous island in the world. It is the 15th largest island in the world by land area . Luzon may also refer to one of the three primary island groups in

8748-641: The northwestern part of the island. This fault system takes up part of the motion due to the subducting plates and produces large earthquakes. Southwest of Luzon is a collision zone where the Palawan micro-block collides with SW Luzon, producing a highly seismic zone near Mindoro island. Southwest Luzon is characterized by a highly volcanic zone, called the Macolod Corridor, a region of crustal thinning and spreading. Using geologic and structural data, seven principal blocks were identified in Luzon in 1989:

8856-450: The only Red Cross parcels received by the internees during the war and undoubtedly staved off malnutrition and disease, reducing the death rate in Santo Tomas. For internees (and U.S. military prisoners of war) in the Philippines this was the only aid received during the war. More parcels were not received because the Japanese linked prisoner and internee exchanges with Red Cross aid to internees. American officials such as J. Edgar Hoover of

8964-527: The original Luzon was referred to as "Xiao (Small) Lusong" to refer to not only Luzon but the whole Philippines. Luzon also became a focal point for global migration. The walled city of Intramuros was initially founded by 1200 Spanish families. The nearby district of Binondo became the center of business and transformed into the world's oldest Chinatown . There was also a smaller district reserved for Japanese migrants in Dilao . Cavite City also served as

9072-620: The remaining forces on Corregidor to the Japanese. This was followed a few days later by the USAFFE units in Visayas and Mindanao. There were a few exceptions who took to the forests and mountains to initiate guerrilla warfare against the Japanese occupiers. It was the worst defeat of the United States in World War II. Over a period of several days, the Japanese occupiers of Manila collected all enemy aliens in Manila and transported them to

9180-546: The same time, Lusong warriors fought alongside the Siamese king and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defence of the Siamese capital at Ayutthaya. Luções military and trade activity reached as far as Sri Lanka in South Asia where Lungshanoid pottery made in Luzon were discovered in burials. Scholars have thus suggested that they could be mercenaries valued by all sides. The Spanish arrival in

9288-411: The shanties. The biggest problem for the internees was sanitation. The Sanitation and Health Committee had more than 600 internee men working for it. Their tasks included building more toilets and showers, laundry, dishwashing, and cooking facilities, disposal of garbage, and controlling the flies, mosquitoes, and rats that infested the compound. During the first two years of imprisonment conditions for

9396-485: The small size of the Japanese guard force, were recorded. Carroll and the Executive Committee reported to the Japanese commandant of the camp. In the early days of STIC, as it was called by internees, the Japanese did not provide food so it was purchased with loans from the Red Cross and donations from individuals. The Committee did a delicate dance with the Japanese attempting to moderate Japanese orders while following

9504-500: The smallest in the country. The environs of the lake form the upland Tagaytay Ridge , which was once part of a massive prehistoric volcano that covered the southern portion of the province of Cavite and the whole of Batangas province. South of Laguna Lake are two solitary mountains, Mount Makiling in Laguna and Batangas provinces, and Mount Banahaw , the highest in the region of Calabarzon . The southeastern portion of Luzon

9612-427: The sound of tanks, grenades, and rifle fire near the front wall of Santo Tomas. The lead element jeep carried guerilla leader, Capt. Manuel Colayco along with Lt. Diosdado Guytingco, who guided the American forces to the internment camp. A Japanese defender flung a grenade under the jeep, injuring its occupants. Capt. Colayco died of his wounds a week later. Five American tanks from the 44th Tank Battalion broke through

9720-508: The south, forming the Bataan Peninsula . The peninsula encloses Manila Bay , a natural harbor considered to be one of the best natural ports in East Asia, due to its size and strategic geographical location. The Sierra Madre mountain range continues to stretch across the western section of Central Luzon, snaking southwards into the Bicol Peninsula . Southern Luzon is dominated by Laguna de Bay ( Old Spanish , " Lake of Bay town "),

9828-542: The success of the Philippine campaign." Carroll and (posthumously) Grinnell received the Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian decoration of the U.S. government. Scholars have characterized the cooperation between the Japanese and the internees at Santo Tomas as "legitimate collaboration. By working with the internees, the Japanese suppressed resistance, isolated Americans from Filipinos, freed up resources, and exploited

9936-577: The term is an abbreviation of Sanskrit adiraja . Fernão Mendes Pinto noted that a number of Luções in the Islamic fleets went to battle with the Portuguese in the Philippines during the 16th century. The Sultan of Aceh gave one of them (Sapetu Diraja) the task of holding Aru (northeast Sumatra) in 1540. Pinto also says one was named leader of the Malays remaining in the Moluccas Islands after

10044-577: The territory during the British war. There was also continuous immigration of Tamils and Bengalis into the rural areas of Luzon: Spanish administrators, native nobles, and Chinese businessmen imported them as slave labor during this period. In the 1600s, Fr. Joaqin Martinez de Zuñiga, conducted a census of the Archdiocese of Manila which held most of Luzon under its spiritual care, and it had

10152-604: The then campus of the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture , now part of University of the Philippines Los Baños . On May 14, the 800 men were loaded on trains and left Santo Tomas. In succeeding months, more men and families were transferred to Los Baños including a large number of missionaries and clergymen who were previously allowed to remain outside the internment camps provided they pledged not to engage in politics. Described as

10260-404: The total were Filipino or part-Filipino, principally the spouses and children of Americans. Of the Americans, 2,000 were males and 1,200 females, including 450 married couples. Children numbered 400. At least one Japanese was interned, Yurie Hori Riley, married to American Henry D. Riley, along with their children. Seventy African-Americans were among the internees as were two American Indians ,

10368-524: The upland headwaters of the Agno River , which stretches from the slopes of Mount Data , and meanders along the southern Cordillera mountains before reaching the plains of Pangasinan . The northeastern section of Luzon is generally mountainous, with the Sierra Madre , the longest mountain range in the country, abruptly rising a few miles from the coastline. Located in between the Sierra Madre and

10476-411: The war, a total of about 7,000 people were resident in Santo Tomas. There was a regular flow of people in and out of the camp, as some missionaries, elderly, and sick people were initially allowed to live outside the camp and more than 2,000 were transferred to Los Baños internment camp . About 150 internees were repatriated to their home countries as part of prisoner exchange agreements between Japan and

10584-661: The west by the South China Sea ( Luzon Sea in Philippine territorial waters), on the east by the Philippine Sea , and on the north by the Luzon Strait containing the Babuyan Channel and Balintang Channel . The mainland is roughly rectangular in shape and has the long Bicol Peninsula protruding to the southeast. Luzon is roughly divided into four sections; Northern Luzon, Central Luzon, Southern Luzon, and Southeastern Luzon. The northwestern portion of

10692-422: The words of an American military officer, the British missionary of the " Two by Twos " Ernest Stanley was " the most hated man in camp ." He spoke Japanese fluently. Always in the company of the Japanese, he spoke to none of the prisoners during all the years of incarceration. On the eve of the liberation, he conversed and laughed with everyone, including high-ranking American Army officers. Speculation arose that he

10800-443: The world's many colonies. Subsequently, the Philippines gained independence from the United States. Luzon then arose to become the most developed island in the Philippines. However, the lingering poverty and inequality caused by the long dictatorship of US-supported dictator, Ferdinand Marcos , gave rise to the Philippine diaspora and many people from Luzon have migrated elsewhere and had established large overseas communities; mainly in

10908-543: Was "discovered" in 1521. Many people from Luzon were employed within Portuguese Malacca. For example, the spice magnate Regimo de Raja , based in Malacca, was highly influential and was appointed as Temenggong (Sea Lord)—a governor and chief general responsible for overseeing of maritime trade—by the Portuguese. As Temenggong , de Raja was also the head of an armada which traded and protected commerce in

11016-461: Was also a Buddhist polity known as Ma-i or Maidh, described in Chinese and Bruneian records in the 10th century CE, although its location is still unknown and scholars are divided on whether it is in modern-day Bay, Laguna or Bulalacao , Mindoro . According to sources at the time, the trade in large native Ruson-tsukuri (literally Luzon-made , Japanese: 呂 宋 製 ) clay jars used for storing green tea and rice wine with Japan flourished in

11124-696: Was also used for Tagalog settlers in Southern Tagalog region, where they created intensive contact with the Kapampangans. Eventually, the term "Luzones" would refer to the settlers of Luzon island, and later on, would be exclusive to the peoples of Central Luzon . Before 1000 CE, the Tagalog , Kapampangan , and Pangasinan peoples of south and central Luzon had established several major coastal polities , notably Maynila , Tondo and Namayan . The oldest known Philippine document, written in 900,

11232-467: Was certain. MacArthur had to wait two years for his wish; it was 1944 before a campaign to recapture the Philippines was launched. The island of Leyte was the first objective of the campaign, which was captured by the end of December 1944. This was followed by the attack on Mindoro and later, Luzon. The end of the World War necessitated decolonization due to rising nationalist movements across

11340-619: Was either a spy or a member of British intelligence." Stanley became the essential mediator in the negotiations between the Japanese in the Education Building of Santo Tomas and the American forces ringing the building and compound. His negotiation efforts initially failed, and American tanks bombarded the building, first warning the hostages within to take cover. Several internees and Japanese were killed and wounded. The next day, February 4, Stanley, going back and forth between Americans and Japanese, negotiated an agreement by which

11448-443: Was in charge of the defense of the Philippines at the time—was ordered to Australia, and the remaining U.S. forces retreated to the Bataan Peninsula . A few months after this, MacArthur expressed his belief that an attempt to recapture the Philippines was necessary. The U.S. Pacific Commander Admiral Chester Nimitz and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Ernest King both opposed this idea, arguing that it must wait until victory

11556-461: Was transferred from Intramuros in 1946. The Benavides Park comprises at least 60 different types of trees. The Rizal Lane is lined by rows of tall pruned Photinia × fraseri or Red Robins. It's also surrounded with native trees and exotic trees like rubber fig and mahogany . The list of trees include: The annual UST Inter-School On-the-Spot Painting Competition is usually held in the plaza. When Queen Sofía of Spain visited UST in 2012, she

11664-715: Was welcomed by the university rector at Rizal Lane before laying a wreath at the Benavides Statue. In 2015, Pope Francis entered the UST campus through the Arch of the Centuries . He then went to an open-top vehicle for a motorcade which began at Rizal Lane, passing through the Benavides Monument and Plaza Mayor. In 2016, the UAAP Season 79 held its opening ceremonies at the UST campus. Student-athletes from

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