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159-911: Established as one of the first four central districts of the city, it is named after the two heroines in Vietnamese history : the Trưng Sisters . Some of Vietnam's largest universities are located here, including the Hanoi University of Technology , Hanoi National Economic University , and Hanoi University of Civil Engineering . Hai Bà Trưng district is divided into 18 wards (Bách Khoa, Bạch Đằng, Bạch Mai, Cầu Dền, Đống Mác, Đồng Nhân, Đồng Tâm, Lê Đại Hành, Minh Khai, Nguyễn Du, Phạm Đình Hổ, Phố Huế, Quỳnh Lôi, Quỳnh Mai, Thanh Lương, Thanh Nhàn, Trương Định, Vĩnh Tuy). 21°00′42″N 105°50′52″E  /  21.01167°N 105.84778°E  / 21.01167; 105.84778 This article about

318-730: A South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice. The Champa civilization and what would later be the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug , which is also in the Philippines, engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries, establishing trading centers. There they were called Orang Dampuan and, due to their wealth, many of them were killed by native Sulu Buranuns. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory killings by

477-673: A Cham Bani cleric – which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state for a short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces. The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their and remnant of Champa's fate. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese, while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by

636-499: A Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thorough knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down the foundations for the Champa art and architectural styles. He also sent many embassies regularly to

795-399: A Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet , followed by Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983, brought mass destruction to Northern Champa. Indrapura was still one of the major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century. The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through

954-591: A battle in Vijaya (1377). Multiple Cham northward invasions from 1371 to 1390 put Vietnamese capital Thăng Long and Vietnamese economy in destruction. However, in 1390 the Cham naval offensive against Hanoi was halted by the Vietnamese general Trần Khát Chân , whose soldiers made use of cannons. The wars with Champa and the Mongols left Đại Việt exhausted and bankrupt. The Trần family was in turn overthrown by one of its own court officials, Hồ Quý Ly . Hồ Quý Ly forced

1113-542: A confederation of kingdom(s) and individual city-states for most of its history. For several periods from the 700s to 1471, there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya , who wielded more power, influence, and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes, and perhaps those minor local kings and princes (Yuvarāja – not necessary mean crown prince) or regional military commander/warlords (senāpati) were from local associates that had no connection with

1272-606: A dike system to protect rice farms; founding the Quốc Tử Giám the first noble university; and establishing court examination system to select capable commoners for government positions once every three years; organizing a new system of taxation; establishing humane treatment of prisoners. Women were holding important roles in Lý society as the court ladies were in charge of tax collection. Neighboring Dali kingdom 's Vajrayana Buddhism traditions also had influences on Vietnamese beliefs at

1431-577: A flourishing trading outpost, receiving goods from the southern seas. The Book of the Later Han recorded that in 166 the first envoy from the Roman Empire to China arrived by this route, and merchants were soon to follow. The 3rd-century Tales of Wei ( Weilüe ) mentioned a "water route" (the Red River) from Annam into what is now southern Yunnan . From there, goods were taken over land to

1590-456: A formal 30-volume history of Đại Việt (Đại Việt Sử Ký) by Lê Văn Hưu , and the rising in status of the Nôm script, a system of writing for Vietnamese language. The Trần dynasty also adopted a unique way to train new emperors: when a crown prince reached the age of 18, his predecessor would abdicate and turn the throne over to him, yet holding the title of Retired Emperor (Thái Thượng Hoàng), acting as

1749-600: A guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with Dai Viet , eventually repelling the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king Trần Nhân Tông spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged a marriage between his daughter, Princess Huyền Trân , and Prince Harijit – now reigning as Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) - in 1306 in exchange for peace and territory. From 1307 to 1401, not even

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1908-497: A large Buddhist temple in Dong Duong. The dynasty of Indravarman II continued to rule until the late 10th century, when a Vietnamese invasion in 982 murdered the ruling king Jaya Paramesvaravarman I (r. 972–982). A Vietnamese usurper named Lưu Kế Tông took advance of unsettling situation and seized Indrapura in 983, declared himself the king of Champa in 986, disrupted the Cham kingdom. In Vijaya (present-day Binh Dinh) from

2067-897: A large army to quell the revolt. After a long, difficult campaign, Ma Yuan suppressed the uprising and the Trung Sisters committed suicide to avoid capture. To this day, the Trưng Sisters are revered in Vietnam as the national symbol of Vietnamese women . Learning a lesson from the Trưng revolt, the Han and other successful Chinese dynasties took measures to eliminate the power of the Vietnamese nobles. The Vietnamese elites were educated in Chinese culture and politics. A Giao Chỉ prefect, Shi Xie , ruled Vietnam as an autonomous warlord for forty years and

2226-485: A linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva . The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed. Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century CE, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa

2385-853: A location in Hanoi , Vietnam is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Vietnamese history The prehistory of Vietnam can be traced back to the arrival of Ancient East Eurasian hunter-gatherers that arrived at least 40,000 years ago. As part of the Initial Upper Paleolithic wave, the Hoabinhians, along with the Tianyuan man , are early members of the Ancient Basal East and Southeast Asian lineage deeply related to present-day East and Southeast Asians. Human migration into Vietnam continued during

2544-477: A long time by scholars until Po Dharma . Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3,000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries. The Southeast Asia Digital Library (SEADL) at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts, totaling more than 57,800 pages of multigenre content. Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in

2703-412: A magic bow. Kaundinya then became the ruler of Funan. Funan is said to be the first Khmer state, or Austronesian, or multiethnic. According to Chinese annals, the last king of Funan, Rudravarman (r. 514–545) sent many embassies to China. Also according to Chinese annals, Funan might have been conquered by another kingdom called Zhenla around AD 627, ending the kingdom of Funan. In the period between

2862-643: A mentor to the new Emperor. During the Trần dynasty, the armies of the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan invaded Đại Việt in 1258, 1285, and 1287–88 . Đại Việt repelled all attacks of the Yuan Mongols during the reign of Kublai Khan . Three Mongol armies said to have numbered from 300,000 to 500,000 men were defeated. The key to Annam's successes was to avoid the Mongols' strength in open field battles and city sieges—the Trần court abandoned

3021-671: A mobile secretariat ( xingsheng ) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia. The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V (r. 1258–1287) and Prince Harijit to wage

3180-525: A new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura , near My Son and ancient Simhapura . Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion. Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture). Unfortunately,

3339-603: A new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). His successor Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441) reigned for the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the Mekong Delta amidst the decline of the Angkorian Empire . One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman , became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under

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3498-454: A predecessor state in the region, began its existence in 192 CE. In the 4th century CE, wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society. Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language, and Hinduism , especially Shaivism , became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century CE,

3657-450: A quasi-registral, incipiently tonal system . After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming Haroi , which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences. According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar –the divine mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the Moon, arrived in modern Central Vietnam and founded

3816-467: A revolt against the Wu dynasty. Once again, the uprising failed. Eastern Wu sent Lu Yin and 8,000 elite soldiers to suppress the rebels. He managed to pacify the rebels with a combination of threats and persuasion. According to the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Đại Việt), Lady Triệu had long hair that reached her shoulders and rode into battle on an elephant. After several months of warfare she

3975-492: A saying was, "The Sovereign's Laws end at the village gate". The sovereign was the final dispenser of justice, law, and supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, as well as overseer of religious rituals. Administration was carried out by mandarins who were trained exactly like their Chinese counterparts (i.e. by rigorous study of Confucian texts). Overall, Vietnam remained very efficiently and stably governed except in times of war and dynastic breakdown. Its administrative system

4134-587: A single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost all of its 14th-century history has to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources. Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No other grand temple or other construction project was built after 1300. These facts marked the beginning of Champa's decline. From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, Che Bong Nga , who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa. He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during

4293-498: A small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga remained in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam . The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, putting an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. But French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of

4452-467: A species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri , an ancient sacred city in Buddhism , for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa

4611-412: A strong monarch, the territories of the kingdom stretch from present-day Quảng Bình to Khánh Hòa . An internal division called viṣaya (district) was first introduced. There were at least two viṣaya: Caum and Midit. Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhāgāras –known as 'source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, northern Champa

4770-657: A two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with. Afterwards, during the 1000s, Rajah Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the Chinese Empire , which was later denied by

4929-532: A youth, who leads the Văn Lang kingdom to victory against the Ân invaders from the north, saves the country and goes straight to heaven. He wears iron armor, rides an armored horse and wields an iron sword. The image implies a society of a certain sophistication in metallurgy as well as An Dương Vương's Legend of the Magic Crossbow , a weapon, that can fire thousands of bolts simultaneously, seems to hint at

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5088-494: Is a multi-ethnic country on Mainland Southeast Asia and has great ethnolinguistic diversity. Vietnam's demography consists of 54 different ethnicities belonging to five major ethnolinguistic families: Austronesian , Austroasiatic , Hmong-Mien , Kra-Dai , Sino-Tibetan . Among 54 groups, the majority ethnic group is the Austroasiatic-speaking Kinh , alone comprising 85.32% of total population. The rest

5247-636: Is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition that dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period. The Chams descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BCE and 200 CE, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom. The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham

5406-692: Is made up of 53 other ethnic groups. Vietnam's ethnic mosaic results from the peopling process in which various peoples came and settled the territory, leading to the modern state of Vietnam by many stages, often separated by thousands of years over a duration of tens of thousands of years. Vietnam's entire history, thus, is an embroidery of polyethnicity. Holocene Vietnam began during the Late Pleistocene period. Early anatomically modern human settlement in Mainland Southeast Asia dates back 65 to 10,5 kya (65,000 years ago). Probably

5565-688: Is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra. The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day Central Vietnam coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and had commercial links across the South China Sea with the Philippine archipelago and even with Taiwan (through Maritime Jade Road , Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere ), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and are no longer hesitant in linking with

5724-400: Is richest for Indrapura ; in the 12th century CE, it is richest for Vijaya ; following the 15th century CE, it is richest for Panduranga . Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another. According to such scholars, if the 10th-century record is richest for Indrapura, it is so because at that time Indrapura

5883-479: Is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham , Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia;

6042-602: Is today Cao Bằng Province ). After assembling an army, he defeated and overthrew the eighteenth dynasty of the Hùng kings , around 258 BC. He then renamed his newly acquired state from Văn Lang to Âu Lạc and established the new capital at Phong Khê in the present-day Phú Thọ town in northern Vietnam, where he tried to build the Cổ Loa Citadel (Cổ Loa Thành), the spiral fortress approximately ten miles north of that new capital. However, records showed that espionage resulted in

6201-643: The Sakkarai dak rai patao , was a 5227-pages collection of Cham veritable records, documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th–13th century to the deposition of Po Thak The , the last king of Panduranga in 1832, reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga, the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 CE, to Po Thak The . The annals were written in Akhar Thrah (traditional) Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers. However, it had been dismissed for

6360-495: The Acehnese from Northern Sumatra , Indonesia , along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic -speaking peoples in Central Vietnam. Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ( 林邑 , Middle Chinese ( ZS ): * liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚ ), that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in

6519-640: The Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe . Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer , the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with

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6678-541: The Battle of Tonlé Sap . The new Cambodian ruler, Jayavarman VII , arose to power, repelled the Cham and began his conquest of Champa in 1190. He finally defeated the Cham in 1203 and put Champa under Khmer governance for 17 years. In 1220, as the Khmer voluntary withdraw from Champa, a Cham prince named Angsaraja proclaimed Jaya Paramesvaravarman II of Champa and restored Cham independence. Champa expanded its commerce to

6837-593: The Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan. The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa. Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles: raja-di-raja ( राजाधिराजः " raja of rajas" or king of kings : written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script ) or pu po tana raya ("lord of all territories"). They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai (his Majesty). Officially,

6996-460: The Cham–Vietnamese War (1471) , Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa Tra Toan , who died along his way to the north in captivity. Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to

7155-598: The Eastern Han dynasty of China in Xianglin who rebelled against Chinese rule in 192. Around the 4th century CE, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences , probably through its neighbor, Funan . Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples . The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman , who reigned from 380 to 413 CE. At Mỹ Sơn , King Bhadravarman established

7314-512: The Japanese Empire . During the French period, widespread malnutrition and brutality from the 1880s until Japan invaded in 1940 created deep resentment that fueled resistance to post-World War II military-political efforts by France and the US. Political upheaval and Communist insurrection put an end to the monarchy after World War II, and the country was proclaimed a republic . Vietnam

7473-653: The Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago , its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma-i . Butuan , and Sulu in the Philippines. Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe

7632-757: The Maritime Jade Road , which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BC to 1000 AD. Pottery reached a higher level of technique and decoration style. The early farming multilinguistic societies in Vietnam were mainly wet rice Oryza cultivators, which became the main staple of their diet. During the later stage of the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, the first appearance of bronze tools took place despite these tools still being rare. By about 1000 BC, bronze replaced stone for about 40 percent of edged tools and weapons, rising to about 60 percent. Here, there were not only bronze weapons, axes, and personal ornaments, but also sickles and other agriculture tools. Toward

7791-485: The Mekong river. Tensions escalated during the next century. Suryavarman II of Khmer Empire invaded Champa in 1145 and 1149 after Cham ruler Indravarman refused to join with the Khmer campaign against the Vietnamese. It was believed that Suryavarman II died during the war against Champa in 1150. In 1177 Cham king Jaya Indravarman IV led a surprised attacked on Khmer capital Yasodharapura ( Angkor ) and defeated them at

7950-464: The Neolithic period, characterized by movements of Southern East Asian populations that expanded from Southern China into Vietnam and South East Asia. See also Genetic history of East Asians . The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated millet and wet-rice emerged around 1700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Vietnam are associated with this Neolithic migration, indicated by

8109-601: The Rade , Jarai , Chru , Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?," Vickery doubts. The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources: Approximately four hundred Champa inscriptions have been found. Around 250 of them were deciphered and studied throughout

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8268-620: The Red River Delta by the second half of 1st millennium BC. Kinh Dương Vương was succeeded by Sùng Lãm (c. 2825 BC – ?). The next royal dynasty produced 18 monarchs, known as the Hùng Kings , who renamed their country Văn Lang . The administrative system includes offices like military chief ( lạc tướng ), paladin ( lạc hầu ) and mandarin ( bố chính ). Great numbers of metal weapons and tools excavated at various Phung Nguyen culture sites in northern Indochina are associated with

8427-623: The Siege of Songping in early 863, defeating the Chinese, and captured the capital in three years. In 866, Chinese jiedushi Gao Pian recaptured the city and drove out the Nanzhao army. He renamed the city to Daluocheng (大羅城, Đại La thành). In 866, Annan was renamed Tĩnh Hải quân . Early in the 10th century, as China became politically fragmented, successive lords from the Khúc clan , followed by Dương Đình Nghệ , ruled Tĩnh Hải quân autonomously under

8586-543: The Song , Yuan , Cham , Ming , Siamese , Qing , French , and Imperial Japan . Vietnam also conquered and colonized the Champa states and parts of Cambodia (today known as the Mekong Delta ) between 1471 and 1760. The Ming Empire conquered the Red River valley for a while before native Vietnamese regained control. The French Empire reduced Vietnam to a French dependency for nearly a century, followed by an occupation by

8745-492: The Tang title of Jiedushi ( Vietnamese : Tiết Độ Sứ), (governor), but stopped short of proclaiming themselves kings. Since 905, Tĩnh Hải circuit had been ruled by local Vietnamese governors like an autonomous state. Tĩnh Hải circuit had to paid tributes for Later Liang dynasty to exchange political protection. In 923, the nearby Southern Han invaded Jinghai but was repelled by Vietnamese leader Dương Đình Nghệ . In 938,

8904-653: The Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by Japan." Between the 7th to 10th centuries CE, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled

9063-446: The matrilocal structure of Cham families. And compared to other Vietnamese ethnic groups, the Cham do not share ancestry with southern Han Chinese, along with Austronesian-speaking Mang. Champa was known to the Chinese as 林邑 Linyi in Mandarin, Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑). The state of Champa was founded in 192 CE by Khu Liên (Ou Lian), an official of

9222-440: The Đông Yên Châu inscription , the oldest known native Southeast Asian literature written in a native Southeast Asian language dating to around c. 350 CE, predating first Khmer , Mon , Malay texts by centuries. Scholarly consensus has shifted several times as to what degree Champa functioned as a unified entity. Originally being viewed as a unified kingdom throughout most of its history, later authors suggested that Champa

9381-403: The 10th century. Often, they encountered strong resistance from the Chams. After the successful alliance with Champa during the Mongol invasion, king Trần Nhân Tông of Đại Việt gained two Champa provinces, located around present-day Huế , through the peaceful means of the political marriage of Princess Huyền Trân to Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III . Not long after the nuptials, the king died, and

9540-533: The 18th century, of integral yet shifting significance within the Austroasiatic Proto-Khmer – and Khmer principalities like Funan , Chenla , the Khmer Empire and the Khmer kingdom. Situated on the southeast edge of monsoon Asia, much of ancient Vietnam enjoyed a combination of high rainfall, humidity, heat, favorable winds, and fertile soil. These natural sources combined to generate an unusually prolific growth of rice and other plants and wildlife. This region's agricultural villages held well over 90 percent of

9699-525: The 3rd century BC, another Viet group, the Âu Việt , emigrated from present-day southern China to the Hồng River delta and mixed with the indigenous Văn Lang population. In 257 BC, a new kingdom, Âu Lạc , emerged as the union of the Âu Việt and the Lạc Việt, with Thục Phán proclaiming himself " An Dương Vương " ("King An Dương"). Some modern Vietnamese believe that Thục Phán came upon the Âu Việt territory (modern-day northernmost Vietnam, western Guangdong , and southern Guangxi province, with its capital in what

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9858-441: The 9th and 10th centuries CE. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt , the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi . In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories. Hinduism , adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century CE, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by

10017-669: The Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium BCE. However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary. Tsat , a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate. Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham (in contact with Vietnamese). Eastern Cham has developed

10176-446: The Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade , which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China , and later in

10335-455: The Bacam ( Bacham , Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non- Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese people of Indonesia . The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/ ), which refers to Magnolia champaca ,

10494-407: The Cham of Panduranga a Tân Dân (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese. Minh Mang's son and successor Thiệu Trị , however, reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minorities. Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc , the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition. Only

10653-409: The Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly, systematically destroyed. Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected to heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions. Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa -

10812-430: The Champa Alliance. Started from the 17th century, Champa kings used title Paduka Seri Sultan in some occasions, a borrowed honorific from Muslim Malay rulers. The 13th-century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi (c. 1225) describes the Cham king 'wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels' and either rides on an elephant or is lifted on a 'cloth hammock by four men' when he goes outside

10971-407: The Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition, often consisting of titles and aliases. Titles (prefix) like: Jaya ( जय "victory"), Maha ( महा "great"), Sri ( श्री "glory"). Aliases (stem) like: Bhadravarman, Vikrantavarman, Rudravarman, Simhavarman, Indravarman, Paramesvaravarman, Harivarman... Among them, the suffix -varman belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of

11130-413: The Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism for the Champa civilization. However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a golden tablet, some white dragon ( Bailong 白龍) camphor , Moluccan cloves, and

11289-403: The Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with additional notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered. The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia . Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by

11448-513: The Chinese rules. In February AD 40, the Trưng Sisters led a successful revolt against Han Governor Su Ding ( Vietnamese: Tô Định) and recaptured 65 states (including modern Guangxi). Trưng Trắc, angered by the killing of her husband by Su Dung, led the revolt together with her sister, Trưng Nhị. Trưng Trắc later became the Queen ( Trưng Nữ Vương ). In 43 AD, Emperor Guangwu of Han sent his famous general Ma Yuan ( Vietnamese: Mã Viện) with

11607-529: The Chinese state Southern Han once again sent a fleet to subdue the Vietnamese. General Ngô Quyền (r. 938–944), Dương Đình Nghệ's son-in-law, defeated the Southern Han fleet at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (938) . He then proclaimed himself King Ngô, established a monarchy government in Cổ Loa and effectively began the age of independence for Vietnam. The basic nature of Vietnamese society changed little during

11766-562: The Con Co Ngua individuals were phenotypically similar to Late Pleistocene Southeast Asians and modern Melanesians and Aboriginal Australians . The Cham people , who for over one thousand years settled in controlled and civilized present-day central and southern coastal Vietnam from around the 2nd century AD, are of Austronesian origin. The southernmost sector of modern Vietnam, the Mekong Delta and its surroundings were, until

11925-474: The Khmer king, leading to a Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years. Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and making it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years. Champa was subjected to a Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, Kublai Khan ordered the establishment of

12084-694: The Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates, Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang . The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in 799. In 875,

12243-656: The Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa. The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, Khmer invasions were frequent. The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1148–1167). Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also

12402-509: The Philippines in the 1200s. The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through a two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i , at Mindoro, Philippines; while Pu-duan ( Butuan ) at Mindanao, need a seven-day journey, and there were mentions of Cham commercial activities in Butuan. Butuan resented Champa commercial supremacy and their king, Rajah Kiling spearheaded a diplomatic rivalry for China trade against Champa hegemony. Meanwhile, at

12561-588: The Red River delta; Cửu Chân from modern-day Thanh Hóa to Hà Tĩnh ; and Nhật Nam ( pinyin : Rinan), from modern-day Quảng Bình to Huế . While governors and top officials were Chinese, the original Vietnamese nobles (Lạc Hầu, Lạc Tướng) from the Hồng Bàng period still managed in some of the highlands. During this period, Buddhism was introduced into Vietnam from India via the Maritime Silk Road , while Taoism and Confucianism spread to Vietnam through

12720-655: The Song troops were held back at the Battle of Như Nguyệt River commonly known as the Cầu river, now in Bắc Ninh province about 40 km from the current capital, Hanoi. Neither side was able to force a victory, so the Vietnamese court proposed a truce, which the Song emperor accepted. Champa and the powerful Khmer Empire took advantage of Đại Việt's distraction with the Song to pillage Đại Việt's southern provinces. Together they invaded Đại Việt in 1128 and 1132. Further invasions followed in

12879-403: The Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from

13038-482: The Vietnamese in 1653. From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế . The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet 's faction, and accused the Cham leaders of supporting Duyet. Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and

13197-497: The Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were razed to the ground. Temples were set on fire. Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions. After finalizing these heavy-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared

13356-476: The Zhao dynasty. Zhao Tuo later appointed himself a commandant of central Guangdong, closing the borders and conquering neighboring districts and titled himself "King of Nanyue". In 179 BC, he defeated King An Dương Vương and annexed Âu Lạc. The period has been given some controversial conclusions by Vietnamese historians, as some consider Zhao 's rule as the starting point of the Chinese domination, since Zhao Tuo

13515-461: The addition of mathematics to the national examinations, the open critique of Confucian philosophy, the use of paper currency in place of coins, investment in building large warships and cannons, and land reform. He ceded the throne to his son, Hồ Hán Thương, in 1401 and assumed the title Thái Thượng Hoàng, in similar manner to the Trần kings. After having been restored from Khmer domination in 1220, Champa continued to face another counter-power from

13674-507: The ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic -speaking peoples. While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a sinicized culture, Cham people carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA , and this fits with

13833-639: The beginning of the Copper Age in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, the beginning of the Bronze Age has been verified for around 500 BC at Đông Sơn . Vietnamese historians usually attribute the Đông Sơn culture with the kingdoms of Văn Lang , Âu Lạc , and the Hồng Bàng dynasty . The local Lạc Việt community had developed a highly sophisticated industry of quality bronze production, processing and

13992-488: The beginning of the Chinese Age of Fragmentation and the end of the Tang dynasty , several revolts against Chinese rule took place, such as those of Lý Bôn and his general and heir Triệu Quang Phục . All of them ultimately failed, yet most notable were those led by Lý Bôn and Triệu Quang Phục, who ruled the briefly independent Van Xuan kingdom for almost half a century, from 544 to 602, before Sui China reconquered

14151-470: The capital and the cities. The Mongols were then countered decisively at their weak points, which were battles in swampy areas such as Chương Dương, Hàm Tử, Vạn Kiếp and on rivers such as Vân Đồn and Bạch Đằng. The Mongols also suffered from tropical diseases and loss of supplies to Trần army's raids. The Yuan-Trần war reached its climax when the retreating Yuan fleet was decimated at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) . The military architect behind Annam's victories

14310-551: The clan led by Đinh Bộ Lĩnh defeated the other warlords, unifying the country. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh founded the Đinh dynasty and proclaimed himself Đinh Tiên Hoàng (Đinh the Majestic Emperor ) and renamed the country from Tĩnh Hải quân to Đại Cồ Việt (literally "Great Viet"), with its capital in the city of Hoa Lư (modern-day Ninh Bình Province ). The new emperor introduced strict penal codes to prevent chaos from happening again. He then tried to form alliances by granting

14469-595: The closure of the Bronze Age, bronze accounts for more than 90 percent of tools and weapons, and there are exceptionally extravagant graves – the burial places of powerful chieftains – containing some hundreds of ritual and personal bronze artifacts, such as musical instruments, bucket-shaped ladles, and ornament daggers. After 1000 BC, the ancient peoples of Vietnam became skilled agriculturalists as they grew rice and kept buffaloes and pigs. They were also skilled fishermen and bold sailors, whose long dug-out canoes traversed

14628-507: The commander of the armed forces, (Thập Đạo Tướng Quân) Lê Hoàn took the throne, replaced the house of Đinh and established the Early Lê dynasty . A capable military tactician, Lê Hoan realized the risks of engaging the mighty Song troops head on; thus, he tricked the invading army into Chi Lăng Pass, then ambushed and killed their commander, quickly ending the threat to his young nation in 981. The Song dynasty withdrew their troops and Lê Hoàn

14787-414: The country with the victory at the battle of Bạch Đằng , the next millennium was advanced by the accomplishments of successive local dynasties : Ngô , Đinh , Early Lê , Lý , Trần , Hồ , Later Trần , Later Lê , Mạc , Revival Lê ( Trịnh and Nguyễn ), Tây Sơn and Nguyễn . At various points during the imperial dynasties, Vietnam was ravaged and divided by civil wars and witnessed interventions by

14946-421: The creation of the first legendary Vietnamese states approximately 2879 BC. Ongoing research from archaeologists has suggested that the Vietnamese Đông Sơn culture were traceable back to northern Vietnam, Guangxi and Laos around 1000 BC. Vietnam's long coastal and narrowed lands, rugged mountainous terrains, with two major deltas, were soon home to several different ancient cultures and civilizations. In

15105-468: The deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390) , sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing the Dai Viet to its collapse. Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war. After Che Bong Nga , Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under

15264-424: The dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala. Mandala is the term coined by O. W. Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia. Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga . When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to

15423-535: The downfall of An Dương Vương. At his capital, Cổ Loa, he built many concentric walls around the city for defensive purposes. These walls, together with skilled Âu Lạc archers, kept the capital safe from invaders. In 207 BC, the former Qin general Zhao Tuo (Triệu Đà in Vietnamese) established an independent kingdom in the present-day Guangdong / Guangxi area of China's southern coast. He proclaimed his new kingdom as Nam Việt ( pinyin: Nanyue), to be ruled by

15582-410: The early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were

15741-412: The early Southeast Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in peaceful conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism in Champa with little resistance. Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 CE. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He

15900-401: The eastern sea. According to a Vietnamese legend which first appeared in the 14th century book Lĩnh nam chích quái , the tribal chief Lộc Tục (c. 2919 – 2794 BC) proclaimed himself as Kinh Dương Vương and founded the state of Xích Quỷ in 2879 BC, that marks the beginning of the Hồng Bàng dynastic period . However, modern Vietnamese historians assume, that statehood was only developed in

16059-475: The end of his short life – he died at the age of 24 – Lê Long Đĩnh had become so ill, that he had to lie down when meeting with his officials in court. When the king Lê Long Đĩnh died in 1009, a palace guard commander named Lý Công Uẩn was nominated by the court to take over the throne, and founded the Lý dynasty . This event is regarded as the beginning of another golden era in Vietnamese history, with

16218-560: The enjoyment of music and poetry, and living in harmony with nature. Fishing and hunting supplemented the main rice crop. Arrowheads and spears were dipped in poison to kill larger animals such as elephants. Betel nuts were widely chewed and the lower classes rarely wore clothing more substantial than a loincloth. Every spring, a fertility festival was held which featured huge parties and sexual abandon. Since around 2000 BC, stone hand tools and weapons improved extraordinarily in both quantity and variety. After this, Vietnam later became part of

16377-584: The extensive use of archery in warfare. The about 1,000 traditional craft villages of the Hồng River Delta near and around Hanoi represented throughout more than 2,000 years of Vietnamese history the national industrial and economic backbone. Countless, mostly small family run manufacturers have over the centuries preserved their ethnic ideas by producing highly sophisticated goods, built temples and dedicated ceremonies and festivals in an unbroken culture of veneration for these legendary popular spirits. By

16536-708: The final remaining principality of Champa was annexed by Emperor Minh Mạng of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty as part of the expansionist Nam tiến policy. The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa ( Sanskrit : नगरचम्प ), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham , and Châmpa ( ចាម្ប៉ា ) in the Khmer inscriptions , Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese , Campa in Malay , Zhànchéng ( Mandarin : 占城) in Chinese records, and al-Ṣanf ( Arabic : صَنْف) in Middle Eastern Muslim records. Early Champa evolved from

16695-408: The following dynasties inheriting the Lý dynasty's prosperity and doing much to maintain and expand it. The way Lý Công Uẩn ascended to the throne was rather uncommon in Vietnamese history. As a high-ranking military commander residing in the capital, he had all opportunities to seize power during the tumultuous years after Emperor Lê Hoàn's death, yet preferring not to do so out of his sense of duty. He

16854-631: The foremost hunter-gatherers were the Hoabinhians , a large group that gradually settled across Southeast Asia, most likely akin to modern-day Munda people (Mundari-speaking people) and Malaysian Austroasiatics . An analysis of individuals from the Con Co Ngua site in Thanh Hoa , Vietnam about 6.2 k cal BP, when restricted to Vietnamese comparisons, showed the closest distance to peoples from Mai Da Dieu, followed by present-day Vietnamese populations. Based on craniometric and dental nonmetric analysis,

17013-409: The historiography of Champa. Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language, culture, and heritage. It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period. For example, in the 10th century CE, the record

17172-430: The illusion of a unified Champa. Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s, for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng , refuted the concept of single Champa. Chinese historical texts, Cham inscriptions, and especially the Cham annals, the Sakkarai dak rai patao , both confirm the existence of multi-Campa scenarios. Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely

17331-573: The introduction of Buddhism and Hinduism by the 2nd century AD, Vietnam was the first place in Southeast Asia which shared influences of both Chinese and Indian cultures , and the rise of the first Indianized kingdoms Champa and Funan . During these 1,000 years there were many uprisings against Chinese domination, and at certain periods Vietnam was independently governed under the Trưng Sisters, Early Lý , Khúc and Dương Đình Nghệ —although their triumphs and reigns were temporary. When Ngô Quyền (King of Vietnam, 938–944) restored sovereign power in

17490-461: The key factors of the process. On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peaceful acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite was likely related to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal , coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice animism , most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To

17649-426: The king was the patron of art and construction. Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicated to the honor of the king of kings, his ancestors, and their beloved gods (usually Śiva). Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation ( abhiseka ) which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king's authority. The regnal name of

17808-654: The kingdom . The Cham Lâm Ấp kingdom, with capital located in Simhapura , became prosperous through benefiting from the ancient maritime trade routes from the Middle East to China. The wealthy of Lâm Ấp attracted attention from the Chinese Empire. In 605, emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Empire ordered general Liu Fang, who had just reconquered and pacificed northern Vietnam, to invade Lâm Ấp. The kingdom

17967-462: The kingdom, but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century was dedicated to her. Her portrayal image in the temple is said to date from 965 CE, it is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne. She

18126-474: The last Trần emperor to abdicate and assumed the throne in 1400. He changed the country name to Đại Ngu and moved the capital to Tây Đô , Western Capital, now Thanh Hóa. Thăng Long was renamed Đông Đô, Eastern Capital. Although widely blamed for causing national disunity and losing the country later to the Ming Empire , Hồ Quý Ly's reign actually introduced a lot of progressive, ambitious reforms, including

18285-881: The last century. Many Cham inscriptions were destroyed by American bombing during the Vietnam War . Currently, the Project Corpus of the Inscriptions of Campā launched by French School of Asian Studies (EFEO) partnering with the Institute for Study of the Ancient World (ISAW) of New York University is tasked for cataloging, sustaining and preserving ancient Cham inscriptions into an online index library and publications of scholarship's epigraphical studies into English, French, and Vietnamese. The Cham have their written records in form of paper book, known as

18444-722: The mandarins either. This stagnant absolutism ensured a stable, well-ordered society, but also resistance to social, cultural, or technological innovations. Reformers looked only to the past for inspiration. Literacy remained the province of the upper classes. Originally, only Chữ Hán was used to write, but by the 11th century, a set of derivative characters known as Chữ Nôm emerged that allowed native Vietnamese words to be written. However, it remained limited to poetry, literature, and practical texts like medicine while all state and official documents were written in Classical Chinese . Aside from some mining and fishing, agriculture

18603-399: The manufacturing of tools, weapons and exquisite Bronze drums. Certainly of symbolic value, they were intended to be used for religious or ceremonial purposes. The craftsmen of these objects required refined skills in melting techniques, in the lost-wax casting technique and acquired master skills of composition and execution for the elaborate engravings. The Legend of Thánh Gióng tells of

18762-501: The many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn , a former religious center, and Hội An , one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites . Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam , a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani ( Ni tục , from Arabic: Bani ). There are, however,

18921-762: The mountains, successfully waged a guerrilla resistance that bogged down the Mongols. Sogetu was driven to the north, and later killed by joint Cham–Vietnamese forces in June 1285. Although having repulsed the Mongol yokes, the Cham king sent an ambassador to the great Khan in October 1285. His successor, Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307), married with a Vietnamese Queen (daughter of the ruling Vietnamese king) in 1306, and Dai Viet acquired two northern provinces. Champa Champa ( Cham : ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چامفا; Khmer : ចាម្ប៉ា ; Vietnamese : Chiêm Thành 占城 or Chiêm Bá 占婆)

19080-480: The nation of the future Sultanate of Sulu which by then was still Hindu, there was a mass migration of men from Champa and they were locally known as Orang Dampuan, and they caused conflicts (which were then resolved) with the local Sulu people. They became the ancestors of the local Yakan people . During the Tang dynasty, Vietnam was called Annam until AD 866. With its capital around modern Bắc Ninh , Annam became

19239-427: The nearly 1,000 years between independence from China in the 10th century and the French conquest in the 19th century. Viet Nam, named Đại Việt (Great Viet) was a stable nation, but village autonomy was a key feature. Villages had a unified culture centered around harmony related to the religion of the spirits of nature and the peaceful nature of Buddhism. While the sovereign was the ultimate source of political authority,

19398-634: The north, the Dong Son culture and its indigenous chiefdoms of Van Lang and Âu Lạc flourished by 500 BC. In Central Vietnam, the Sa Huỳnh culture of Austronesian Chamic peoples also thrived. Both were swept away by the Han dynasty expansion from the north, with the Han conquest of Nanyue bringing parts of Vietnam under Chinese rule in 111 BC. In 40 AD, the Trưng sisters led the first uprising of indigenous tribes and peoples against Chinese domination. The rebellion

19557-431: The north. After their invasion of 982, the Vietnamese had been pushing war against Champa in 1020, 1044, and 1069, plundered Cham capital. In 1252 king Tran Thai Tong of the new dynasty of Dai Viet led an incursion into Cham territories, captured many Cham concubines and women. This might be the reason for the death of Jaya Paramesvaravarman II as he died in the same year. His younger brother, Prince Harideva of Sakanvijaya,

19716-410: The palace. When the king attends the court audience, he is encircled by 'thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts'. Court officials would make reports to the king, then make one prostration before leaving. The last king of Champa, Po Phaok The , was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832. During the reign of the king Prakasadharma (r. 653–686 AD), when Champa was briefly ruled by

19875-468: The population. The high volume of rainy season water required villagers to concentrate their labor in managing floods, transplanting rice, and harvesting. These activities produced a cohesive village life with a religion in which one of the core values was the desire to live in harmony with nature and with other people. The way of life, centered in harmony, featured many enjoyable aspects that the people held beloved, typified by not needing many material things,

20034-490: The presences of major paternal lineages that are represented by East Eurasian -affiliated Y-haplogroups O , C2 , and N . The Red River valley formed a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the north and west by mountains and jungles, to the east by the sea and to the south by the Red River Delta . The need to have a single authority to prevent floods of the Red River, to cooperate in constructing hydraulic systems, trade exchange, and to repel invaders, led to

20193-532: The princess returned to her northern home in order to avoid a Cham custom that would have required her to join her husband in death. Champa was made a tributary state of Vietnam in 1312, but ten years later they regained independence and eventually waged a 30-years long war against the Vietnamese, in order to regain these lands and encouraged by the decline of Đại Việt in the course of the 14th century. Cham troops led by king Chế Bồng Nga (Cham: Po Binasuor or Che Bonguar, r. 1360–1390) killed king Trần Duệ Tông through

20352-400: The region. In the early first century AD, on the lower Mekong , the first Indianized kingdom of Southeast Asia which the Chinese called them Funan emerged and became the great economic power in the region, its prime city Óc Eo attracted merchants and craftmen from China, India, and even Rome. The first ruler of Funan, Queen Liǔyè , got married with Kaundinya , a man from the west with

20511-463: The rest of China via the regions of modern Kunming and Chengdu . The capital of Annam, Tống Bình or Songping (today Hanoi) was a major urbanized settlement in the southwest region of Tang Empire. From 858 to 864, disturbances in Annan gave Nanzhao , a Yunnan kingdom, opportunity to intervene the region, provoking local tribes to revolt against the Chinese. The Yunnanese and their local allies launched

20670-487: The seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. Its emergence in the late 2nd century CE exemplifies early Southeast Asian statecraft at a crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia . The peoples of Champa maintained a system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia , until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also found

20829-560: The south, a new Hindu dynasty was founded in 989 and relocated Cham capital to Vijaya in 1000. Champa and the emerging Khmer Empire had waged war on each other for three centuries, from the 10th to 13th century. The Khmer first invaded Champa in Kauthara (Khanh Hoa) in 950. In 1080, they attacked Vijaya and central Champa. The Cham under Harivarman IV launched counteroffensive against the Cambodian and plundered temples across east of

20988-530: The strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 , decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa. For early historians like Georges Maspero , "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom." Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa as becoming a "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization. In

21147-445: The subsequent decades. Toward the declining Lý monarch's power in the late 12th century, the Trần clan from Nam Định eventually rise to power. In 1224, powerful court minister Trần Thủ Độ forced the emperor Lý Huệ Tông to become a Buddhist monk and Lý Chiêu Hoàng , Huệ Tông's 8-year-old young daughter, to become ruler of the country. Trần Thủ Độ then arranged the marriage of Chiêu Hoàng to his nephew Trần Cảnh and eventually had

21306-459: The throne transferred to Trần Cảnh, thus begun the Trần dynasty . Trần Thủ Độ viciously purged members of the Lý nobility; some Lý princes escaped to Korea, including Lý Long Tường . After the purge, the Trần emperors ruled the country in similar manner to the Lý kings. Noted Trần monarch accomplishments include the creation of a system of population records based at the village level, the compilation of

21465-685: The time. Lý kings adopted both Buddhism and Taoism as state religions. The Vietnamese during Lý dynasty had one major war with Song China, and a few invasive campaigns against neighboring Champa in the south. The most notable conflict took place on Chinese territory Guangxi in late 1075. Upon learning that a Song invasion was imminent, the Vietnamese army under the command of Lý Thường Kiệt , and Tông Đản used amphibious operations to preemptively destroy three Song military installations at Yongzhou , Qinzhou, and Lianzhou in present-day Guangdong and Guangxi , and killed 100,000 Chinese. The Song dynasty took revenge and invaded Đại Việt in 1076, but

21624-433: The title of Queen to five women from the five most influential families. Đại La became the capital. In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng and his crown prince Đinh Liễn were assassinated by Đỗ Thích, a government official, leaving his lone surviving son, the 6-year-old Đinh Toàn , to assume the throne. Taking advantage of the situation, the Song dynasty invaded Đại Cồ Việt. Facing such a grave threat to national independence,

21783-620: The trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea , between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India . They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding. However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese ( Javaka , probably refers to Srivijaya , ruler of

21942-473: The trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding. This period of prosperity and cultural flourishing is often referred to as the golden age of Champa. In 875, a new Mahayana Buddhist monarch named Indravarman II (r. 854–893) founded a new dynasty with Buddhism as state religion. Indravarman II built a new capital city in Indrapura (modern-day Quảng Nam ) and

22101-746: The vice-king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are the Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces . To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strictly mandatory for

22260-536: Was Commander Trần Quốc Tuấn, more popularly known as Trần Hưng Đạo . In order to avoid further disastrous campaigns, the Tran and Champa acknowledged Mongol supremacy. In 1288, Venetian explorer Marco Polo visited Champa and Đại Việt. It was also during this period that the Vietnamese waged war against the southern kingdom of Champa , continuing the Vietnamese long history of southern expansion (known as Nam tiến ) that had begun shortly after gaining independence in

22419-452: Was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century CE until 1832. According to earliest historical references found in ancient sources, the first Cham polities were established around the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE, in the wake of Khu Liên 's rebellion against the rule of China's Eastern Han dynasty , and lasted until when

22578-631: Was a former Qin general; whereas others consider it still an era of Vietnamese independence as the Zhao family in Nanyue were assimilated into local culture. They ruled independently of what then constituted the Han Empire . At one point, Zhao Tuo even declared himself Emperor, equal to the Han Emperor in the north. In 111 BC, the Han dynasty invaded Nanyue and established new territories, dividing Vietnam into Giao Chỉ ( pinyin : Jiaozhi), now

22737-467: Was better considered to be a federation of independent states. A number of modern scholars have suggested that Champa did form a unified kingdom in some periods but was disunified in others. The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that

22896-562: Was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam. Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived by Louis Finot , a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient . In his 2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation of peśvara , Campādeśa , Campānagara ). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as

23055-403: Was consisted by several known districts (viṣaya, zhou 洲): Amaravati ( Quảng Ngãi ), Ulik ( Thừa Thiên–Huế ), Vvyar ( Quảng Trị ), Jriy (southern Quảng Bình ), and Traik (northern Quảng Bình ). Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous. The classical narrative of 'the Champa Kingdom' brought by earlier generations of scholarship, Georges Maspero and George Coedes , created

23214-434: Was crowned as Jaya Indravarman VI (r. 1252–1257). The new king was however assassinated by his nephew in 1257, who became Indravarman V (r. 1257–1288). The new Mongol Yuan threat soon dragged two hostile kingdoms Champa and Dai Viet close together. The Yuan emperor Kublai demanded Cham submission in 1278 and 1280, both refused. In early 1283 Kublai sent a sea expedition led by Sogetu to invade Champa. The Cham retreated to

23373-507: Was defeated and committed suicide. At the same time, in present-day Central Vietnam , there was a successful revolt of Cham nations in 192. Chinese dynasties called it Lin-Yi (Lin village; Vietnamese: Lâm Ấp ). It later became a powerful kingdom, Champa , stretching from Quảng Bình to Phan Thiết ( Bình Thuận ). The Cham developed the first native writing system in Southeast Asia, oldest surviving literature of any Southeast Asian language, leading Buddhist, Hindu, and cultural expertise in

23532-475: Was defeated, but as the Han dynasty began to weaken by the late 2nd century AD and China started to descend into a state of turmoil, the indigenous peoples of Vietnam rose again and some became free. In 192 AD, the Cham of Central Vietnam revolted against the Chinese and subsequently formed the independent kingdom of Champa , while the Red River Delta saw a loosening of Chinese control. At that time, with

23691-583: Was in a way being "elected" by the court after some debate before a consensus was reached. The Lý monarchs are credited for laying down a concrete foundation for the nation of Vietnam. In 1010, Lý Công Uẩn issued the Edict on the Transfer of the Capital , moving the capital Đại Cồ Việt from Hoa Lư, a natural fortification surrounded by mountains and rivers, to the new capital in present-day Hanoi , Đại La, which

23850-491: Was later renamed Thăng Long (Ascending Dragon) by Lý Công Uẩn, after allegedly seeing a dragon flying upwards when he arrived at the capital. Moving the capital, Lý Công Uẩn thus departed from the militarily defensive mentality of his predecessors and envisioned a strong economy as the key to national survival. The third emperor of the dynasty, Lý Thánh Tông renamed the country "Đại Việt" (大越, Great Viet). Successive Lý emperors continued to accomplish far-reaching feats: building

24009-459: Was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River , Northeast India . His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles. George Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along

24168-535: Was posthumously deified by later Vietnamese monarchs. Shi Xie pledged loyalty to Eastern Wu of the Three Kingdoms era of China. The Eastern Wu was a formative period in Vietnamese history . According to Stephen O'Harrow, Shi Xie was essentially "the first Vietnamese". Nearly 200 years passed before the Vietnamese attempted another revolt. In 248 a Yue woman, Triệu Thị Trinh with her brother Triệu Quốc Đạt , popularly known as Lady Triệu (Bà Triệu), led

24327-438: Was probably far more advanced than that of any other Southeast Asian states and was more highly centralized and stably governed among Asian states. No serious challenge to the sovereign's authority ever arose, as titles of nobility were bestowed purely as honors and were not hereditary. Periodic land reforms broke up large estates and ensured that powerful landowners could not emerge. No religious/priestly class ever arose outside of

24486-598: Was quickly overwhelmed by the invaders who pillaged and looted Cham sanctuaries. Despite that, king Sambhuvarman of Lâm Ấp (r. 572–629) quickly reasserted his independence, beginning the unified period of Champa in 629. From the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Cham controlled the trade in spices and silk between China, India, the Indonesian islands, and the Abbasid empire in Baghdad . They supplemented their income from

24645-414: Was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route. Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunifying under Jaya Harivarman by 1161. After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor , capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying

24804-511: Was referred to in his realm as Emperor Đại Hành (Đại Hành Hoàng Đế). Emperor Lê Đại Hành was also the first Vietnamese monarch who began the southward expansion process against the kingdom of Champa . Emperor Lê Đại Hành's death in 1005 resulted in infighting for the throne amongst his sons. The eventual winner, Lê Long Đĩnh , became the most notorious tyrant in Vietnamese history. He devised sadistic punishments of prisoners for his own entertainment and indulged in deviant sexual activities. Toward

24963-548: Was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap , overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu . He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma , who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma , who died in 645. Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son , Tra Kieu , Hue , Khanh Hoa dated 653–687 report

25122-581: Was the capital of Champa. Other scholars have disputed this contention, holding that Champa was never a united country, and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period. Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia , China, Java and India amongst others. An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in modern central Vietnam, and Lâm Ấp ,

25281-497: Was the primary activity of most Vietnamese, and economic development and trade were not promoted or encouraged by the state. Ngô Quyền in 938 declared himself king, but died after only 6 years. His untimely death after a short reign resulted in a power struggle for the throne, resulting in the country's first major civil war, the upheaval of the Twelve Warlords (Loạn Thập Nhị Sứ Quân). The war lasted from 944 to 968, until

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