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129-541: Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatun reunited most Mongol tribes in the late 15th century. However, the former's distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs caused the decentralization of the imperial rule . Despite this decentralization, a remarkable concord continued within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy, and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligdan Khan (1604–1634), who saw much of his power weakened in his quarrels with

258-604: A 500,000 strong Ming army and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in what came to be known as the Tumu Crisis . However, after this astounding victory, Esen failed to take the Ming capital of Beijing . In the following year a peace was concluded between the two sides and the captive emperor was allowed to return home. After executing the rebellious Tayisung Khan (r. 1433–1453) and his brother Agbarjin in 1453, Esen took

387-482: A Han Chinese woman (surname Zhang); it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother. Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives. His Jurchen wives' surnames were Monian and Nahe, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi. Shi Tianze defected to the Mongol forces upon their invasion of

516-657: A Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chikhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor . By 1690, Galdan had control of Outer Mongolia as far as the edge of Manchuria, before turning his attention east towards Beijing. This expansion of

645-759: A bell tower and drum tower to announce the night curfew (which was revived after being abolished under the Song). The Jurchens followed Khitan precedent of living in tents amidst the Chinese-style architecture, which were in turn based on the Song dynasty Kaifeng model. A significant branch of Taoism called the Quanzhen School was founded under the Jin Dynasty by Han Chinese Wang Zhe (1113–1170), founder of formal congregations in 1167 and 1168. He took

774-485: A century. Despite this decentralization there was a remarkable concord within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy and intra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign of Ligden Khan (1604–34). Dayan's early life is also fictionalized in books three and four of the historical fiction Fractured Empire Saga , by Starr Z. Davies, published 2021-2022, a four-book series: Daughter of the Yellow Dragon , Lords of

903-473: A century. Despite this decentralization, there was a remarkable concord within the new Mongol order created by Dayan Khan. After Dayan Khan's death, the Mongols began falling apart again under the two succeeding khans. By 1540 new regional circles of taijis and local tabunangs (imperial sons-in-law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khan's domains. The khagan and the jinong had titular authority over

1032-564: A clear separation between the sedentary population who had lived under Liao rule, and the sedentary population who formerly lived under Northern Song rule but had never been under Liao rule. The former they referred to as hanren or yanren while the latter they referred to as nanren . Because the Jin had few contacts with its southern neighbour, the Song dynasty, different cultural developments took place in both states. Within Confucianism ,

1161-521: A complete Canon for printing. After sending people on a "nationwide search for scriptures" that yielded 1,074 fascicles of text that had not been included in the Huizong edition of the Canon and also securing donations to fund the new printing, Sun Mingdao proceeded to have the new woodblocks cut in 1192. The final print consisted of 6,455 fascicles. Despite records that the Jin emperors offered copies of

1290-600: A depleted military force, Wanyan Liang failed to make headway in his attempted invasion of the Southern Song dynasty. Finally he was assassinated by his own generals in December 1161, due to his defeats. His son and heir was also assassinated in the capital. Although crowned in October, Wanyan Yong (Emperor Shizong) was not officially recognised as emperor until the murder of Wanyan Liang's heir. The Khitan uprising

1419-517: A formal alliance with the Jurchens from 1612 to 1624. In response, Ligdan waged war on the Mongol allies of the Jurchens in 1625. The Jurchen-Mongol army defeated Ligdan and forced him back. In the following year, Uuba Noyan of the Khorchin had his younger brother marry one of Nurhaci's daughters, cementing the alliance. Many of the Jurchens married Mongols. Ligdan appointed his own officials over

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1548-638: A large-scale conversion to Tibetan Buddhism in the Right Wing Tumens occurred. Jasagtu appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the Karmapa order and agreed that Buddhism would henceforth become the state religion of Mongolia. In 1577, Altan and Sechen received the 3rd Dalai Lama , which started the conversion of Tumed and Ordos Mongols to Buddhism. Soon after the Oirats also adopted Buddhism. Numerous Tibetan lamas entered Mongolia to proselytize. By

1677-597: A new level of organization. Dayan Khan intended to maintain good relations with Ming dynasty at first. His envoys were sent to sign open-trade contract with gifts, but one of them was killed by the Ming court, so he launched military expeditions into the Ming China. Dayan Khan as a mature ruler had no interest in joining the Ming's tribute system . Dayan Khan allied with the Monggoljins under Toloogen and Khooshai of Ordos . With Dayan Khan and Mandukhai's movement to

1806-657: A new official edition of the Canon printed by the Northern Song. Completed in 1173, the Jin Tripitaka counted about 7,000 fascicles, "a major achievement in the history of Buddhist private printing." It was further expanded during the Yuan dynasty . Buddhism thrived during the Jin period, both in its relation with the imperial court and in society in general. Many sutras were also carved on stone tablets. The donors who funded such inscriptions included members of

1935-635: A result, in 1639, Gombodorj's son became the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu , the spiritual head of the Gelug Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj did his best to maintain peaceful relations with the rising Manchus by sending tribute. He also stopped providing horses to the Ming dynasty . Diplomacy failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming in 1644 and seized Beijing . In 1646, a Mongol noyan rebelled against

2064-486: A series of permanent bases along the Ming border where the Mongols could keep watch on the Ming troops. Batumongke Dayan Khan repeatedly sought trade relation with the Ming, but rejection turned him more and more to outright warfare. The high point of Mongol power came in 1517, when Dayan Khan moved on Beijing itself. Although the Ming dynasty held the Mongols off in a major battle, Dayan Khan and his successors continued to threaten China until 1526. The Mongol armies raided

2193-539: A skirmish raid on one of the rebel groups, the imperial army killed Ibrahim’s younger brother. Dayan Khan dispatched to the Tumens his sons Ulusbaikh (Ulusbold) and Barsubolad Sainalag. As Ulusbold was being enthroned as jinong, he was killed in a riot and Barsubolad escaped. In revenge, Dayan Khan attacked the Three Right Wing Tumens with his three Left Wing Tumens ( Chakhar , Khalkha and Uriankhai ),

2322-766: A small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan , who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691. Outer Mongolia was thus incorporated into the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned to Outer Mongolia as Qing vassals. A Qing garrison was installed at Ulaanbaatar. The Qing forces occupied Hami but did not advance into Dzungaria. The Dzungars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan, but they too were conquered by

2451-402: A span of 23 years, the Jin were ultimately conquered by the Mongols in 1234. The Jin dynasty was officially known as the "Great Jin" (大金), with Jin meaning "gold". The Jurchen word for "gold", and therefore also for their state name, was alchun . Furthermore, the Jin emperors referred to their state as China, Zhongguo ( 中國 ), just as some other non-Han dynasties. Non-Han rulers expanded

2580-561: A succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as "period of small kings" ( Бага хаадын үе ). On one side stood the Western Mongols and on the other the Eastern Mongols . While the Oirats drew their khans from the descendants of Ariq Böke and other princes, Arugtai of

2709-668: Is derived from the corresponding term "北元" ( Běi Yuán ) in the Chinese language, in which the prefix "Northern" is used to distinguish between the Yuan dynasty established in 1271 and the regime that existed after 1368. The historiographical name "Northern Yuan" first appeared in the Korean historical text Goryeosa written in Classical Chinese . Some scholars believe that the reign of Dayan Khan whose regnal name "Dayan" came from

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2838-694: The Alliance Conducted at Sea with the Han -led Northern Song dynasty and agreed to jointly invade the Liao dynasty. While the Song armies faltered, the Jurchens succeeded in driving the Liao to Central Asia . In 1125, after the death of Aguda, the Jin dynasty broke its alliance with the Song dynasty and invaded north China. When the Song dynasty reclaimed the Han-populated Sixteen Prefectures , they were "fiercely resisted" by

2967-619: The Asud supported the old Yuan khans of Kublaid descent. The House of Ogedei also briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule. The Mongols eventually split into three main groups: the Oirats in the west, the Uriankhai in northeast, and the Khorchin between the two. The Uriankhai surrendered to the Ming dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into the Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu. Mongol relations with

3096-609: The Canon as gifts, not a single fragment of it is known to have survived. A Buddhist Canon or "Tripitaka" was also produced in Shanxi , the same place where an enhanced version of the Jin-sponsored Taoist Canon would be reprinted in 1244. The project was initiated in 1139 by a Buddhist nun named Cui Fazhen, who swore (and allegedly "broke her arm to seal the oath") that she would raise the necessary funds to make

3225-597: The Four Oirats . Making another of his sons jinong, he abolished old-Yuan court titles of taishi, chingsang, pingchan and chiyuan. From 1495 onward, Dayan exerted pressure on the Ming dynasty, which closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded Ming territory and subjugated the Uriankhai Three Guards, who had previously submitted to the Ming. As a result, the Tümed Mongols ruled in

3354-641: The Great Jin ( 大金 ; Dà Jīn ), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 1115 and 1234. As the ruling Wanyan clan was of Jurchen descent, it is also sometimes called the Jurchen dynasty or the Jurchen Jin . At its peak, the empire extended from Outer Manchuria in the north to the Qinling–Huaihe Line in the south. The Jin dynasty emerged from Wanyan Aguda 's rebellion against

3483-753: The Heishui Mohe in the north, named after the Heilong River , and the Sumo Mohe in the south, named after the Songhua River . From the Heishui Mohe emerged the Jurchens in the forested mountain areas of eastern Manchuria and Russia's Primorsky Krai . The Wuguo ("Five Nations") federation that existed to the northeast of modern Jilin are also considered to be ancestors of the Jurchens. The Jurchens were mentioned in historical records for

3612-469: The Huai River to the Jin dynasty and the execution of Song general Yue Fei in return for peace. The peace treaty was formally ratified on 11 October 1142 when a Jin envoy visited the Song court. Having conquered Kaifeng and occupied northern China, the Jin later deliberately chose earth as its dynastic element and yellow as its royal color. According to the theory of the wuxing ('five elements'),

3741-565: The Jurchens to the east. Abtai and Sechen brought many of the Oirat tribes under their domination. Altan conquered large parts of Qinghai and left one of his sons in charge there. Jasagtu also tried to unify the Mongols under a new code of law, written in the old Mongol script derived from the Uyghur script . A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder

3870-549: The Kherlen River , yet large-scale raids all along the frontier continued through 1507. A delegation from the Three Right Wing Tumens ( Ordos , Tümed and Yöngshiyebü ) invited Dayan Khan to rule them. Because Iburai Taishi (also known as Ibrahim ), an Uighur adventurer or an Oirat/ Kharchin warlord and Mandulai dominated the area, the three Tumens were seeking a more agreeable arrangement. In

3999-642: The Khorchin and the Abagha. Because a large group of the Uriankhai Tumen defected to Iburai, Dayan Khan was first defeated at Turgen Stream at present-day Tumed territory. In 1510, he crushed the Three Right Wing Tumens and killed Mandulai, the Ordos elder. Iburai fled to Kokenuur ( Qinghai ) where he remained active to 1533. Dayan Khan dispersed the rebel Uriankhais among other 5 tumens. Instead of enslaving

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4128-625: The Liao dynasty (916–1125), which held sway over northern China until being driven by the nascent Jin to the Western Regions , where they would become known in Chinese historiography as the Western Liao . After conquering the Liao territory, the Jin launched a century-long campaign against the Song dynasty (960–1279) based in southern China, whose rulers were ethnically Han Chinese . Over

4257-542: The Manchus , and the successors of the Mongol Empire were also under Manchu authority. The son of Ligdan Khan, Ejei , died under mysterious circumstances. His rank was given to his brother Abunai, who refused to attend court with the Manchus. Abunai's rank was then passed on to his son, Burni, who rebelled against the Manchus in 1675, but the uprising was defeated and Burni died in battle. The Qing emperors then placed

4386-875: The Mongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty in the 13th and the 14th centuries. In chronicles written in the Mongolian language, this period is also known as " The Forty and the Four " ( Döchin Dörben ), meaning forty tümen of Eastern Mongols ( Eastern Mongolia ) and four tümen of Western Mongols . Mongolian historiography also uses the term "Period of political disunion", "Period of small khagans", "Mongolia's period of political disruption" and "Mongolia's 14th–17th century", etc. The Chinese Ming Dynasty called them “Tatar” ( Chinese : 鞑靼 ; pinyin : Dádá ) and “Wala” (Oirats, Chinese : 瓦剌 ; pinyin : Wǎlà ) after

4515-689: The Neo-Confucian "Learning of the Way" that developed and became orthodox in Song did not take root in Jin. Jin scholars put more emphasis on the work of northern Song scholar and poet Su Shi (1037–1101) rather than on Zhu Xi 's (1130–1200) scholarship that constituted the foundation of the Learning of the Way. The Jin pursued a revival of Tang dynasty urban design with architectural projects in Kaifeng and Zhongdu (modern Beijing), building for instance

4644-542: The Ordos region and they gradually extended their domain into northeastern Qinghai . In 1517, Dayan even threatened Beijing itself. Mongol armies raided the Ming dynasty not only in the north but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Ming dynasty lost Kara Del as a protectorate to the Turpan Khanate at the same time. Dayan kept defeating the Ming in battle right up until his death in 1543. At the apogee of Dayan's reign,

4773-588: The Southern Song dynasty in 1161. Meanwhile, two simultaneous rebellions erupted in Shangjing , at the Jurchens' former power base: led by Wanyan Liang's cousin, soon-to-be crowned Wanyan Yong , and the other of Khitan tribesmen. Wanyan Liang had to withdraw Jin troops from southern China to quell the uprisings. The Jin forces were defeated by Song forces in the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao . With

4902-654: The Uriyangkhai in Mongolia. His paternal grandmother, Sechen, was a daughter of Esen Tayshi of the Oirats . Although Bolkhu and his family suffered through life's darkest hours during the reign of Esen and the internal conflict of the Northern Yuan dynasty , they were welcomed by his uncle (brother) Manduul Khan (r. 1465–1467) soon after his coronation. Batumongke's father and his uncle Manduul had come to blows due to warlords' convictions, and Bayanmongke had fled and been murdered. Manduul's taishi Ismayil (also known as Isama) then took his wife Shikher and properties. In order to save Batumongke's life Shiker gave her child to

5031-414: The Uyghurs and they might have had some ties with the Hami oasis. During his reign, Manduulun Khan (1475–1478) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478. Manduulun's young khatun Mandukhai proclaimed a seven-year-old boy named Batumongke of Genghisid descent as khan. Mandukhai made persistent efforts to bring the various Mongol tribes under control. The new khan took

5160-411: The "Newly Submitted Army" ( 新附軍 ). Genghis Khan died in 1227 while his armies were attacking Western Xia. His successor, Ögedei Khan, invaded the Jin dynasty again in 1232 with assistance from the Southern Song dynasty . The Jurchens tried to resist; but when the Mongols besieged Kaifeng in 1233, Emperor Aizong fled south to the city of Caizhou . A Song–Mongol allied army surrounded the capital, and

5289-430: The Bakhay family to nurse him. However, Temur-Qadag of the Tangud (already Mongolicized) took the child from Bakhay. Because of his Borjigin blood, Batumongke was well taken care of by the Mongol commoners and minor nobles. At the sudden death of Manduul Khan in 1467, Batumongke was five years old. Later he was adopted by Mandukhai Khatun , the widow of Manduul Khan. When Mandukhai's loyalists brought back Batumongke, he

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5418-398: The Black Banner , Mother of the Blue Wolf , Empress of the Jade Realm . Dayan Khan is an important background character in the historical novel "Manduchai", written by German Author Tanja Kinkel in 2014. Dayan Khan appeared as a background character in the historical drama "Marco Polo" on Season 2 Episode 11, written John Fusco and Lorenzo Richelmy in 2016. Dayan Khan married Mandukhai

5547-428: The Chahar Mongols under their direct rule. In Outer Mongolia the Khalkhas still against Manchu rule, Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj retained his independence and suzerainty over the Sechen and Jasagtu khans. However another independent entity known as Altan Khan of the Khalkha emerged in Jasagtu territory. With the loss of Inner Mongolia and the Imperial Mongol Seal, the Mongols had to search for a new source of authority. As

5676-421: The Chinese term "大元" ( Dà Yuán ; lit. "Great Yuan"). Contrary to this, other views hold that the title "Dayan" is derived from the Mongolian word means "origin" or "whole". Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that Taisun Khan , Esen Taishi , Manduul Khan , and Ligdan Khan had also used the "Great Yuan" dynastic name and Han-style imperial titles during their rule up to the early 17th century. In English,

5805-420: The Dzungar state was viewed with worry by the Qing, which led the Kangxi Emperor (Enh-Amgalan khaan-in Mongolian) to block Galdan. Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near the western headwaters of the Liao River . Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because

5934-417: The Eight white yurts in Ordos in 1500, they launched a massive attack on Ningxia and conquered some lands. At first their invasion caused trouble to the Ming Chinese but Yu, the officer of the Ming Dynasty, and his commander Wang ambushed the Mongols and organized an unexpectedly vigorous counter attack in an attempt to capture Dayan Khan the next year. Barely escaping the Ming attack, Dayan Khan relocated to

6063-405: The Han Chinese population there who had previously been under Liao rule, while when the Jurchens invaded that area, the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all and handed over the Southern Capital (present-day Beijing , then known as Yanjing) to them. The Jurchens were supported by the anti-Song, Beijing-based noble Han clans. The Han Chinese who worked for the Liao were viewed as hostile enemies by

6192-436: The Imperial Jurchen Academy was founded, and the imperial examinations started to be offered in the Jurchen language. Emperor Shizong 's reign (1161–1189) was remembered by the posterity as the time of comparative peace and prosperity, and the emperor himself was compared to the mythological rulers Yao and Shun . Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live

6321-442: The Imperial palaces in Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song dynasty, capturing both Emperor Qinzong and his father, Emperor Huizong , who had abdicated in panic in the face of the Jin invasion. Following the fall of Bianjing, the succeeding Southern Song dynasty continued to fight the Jin dynasty for over a decade, eventually signing the Treaty of Shaoxing in 1141, which called for the cession of all Song territories north of

6450-450: The Jin "eastern capital", and in 1213 they besieged the "central capital", Zhongdu (present-day Beijing ). In 1214 the Jin made a humiliating treaty but retained the capital. That summer, Emperor Xuanzong abandoned the central capital and moved the government to the "southern capital" Kaifeng , making it the official seat of the Jin dynasty's power. In 1216, a hawkish faction in the Jin imperial court persuaded Emperor Xuanzong to attack

6579-434: The Jin dynasty merged Jurchen customs with institutions adopted from the Liao and Song dynasties. The pre-dynastic Jurchen government was based on the quasi-egalitarian tribal council. Jurchen society at the time did not have a strong political hierarchy. The Shuo Fu ( 說郛 ) records that the Jurchen tribes were not ruled by central authority and locally elected their chieftains. Tribal customs were retained after Aguda united

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6708-456: The Jin dynasty. His son, Shi Gang, married a Keraite woman; the Keraites were Mongolified Turkic people and considered as part of the "Mongol nation". Shi Tianze, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and other Han Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state. The Mongols created a Han army out of defecting Jin troops, and another army out of defected Song troops called

6837-417: The Jin imperial family, high officials, common people, and Buddhist priests. Some sutras have only survived from these carvings and thus they are important in the study of Chinese Buddhism. At the same time, the Jin court sold monk certificates for revenue. This practice was initiated in 1162 by Emperor Shizong to fund his wars, and stopped three years later when the wars were over. His successor Zhanzong used

6966-402: The Jin southern capital Kaifeng (the former Northern Song capital) to the central capital's "Abbey of Celestial Perpetuity" ( Tianchang guan 天長觀), on the site of what is now the White Cloud Temple in Beijing. Other Daoist writings were also moved there from another abbey in the central capital. Zhangzong instructed the abbey's superintendent Sun Mingdao (孫明道) and two civil officials to prepare

7095-482: The Jurchen tribes and formed the Jin dynasty, coexisting alongside more centralised institutions. The Jin dynasty had five capitals, a practice they adopted from the Balhae and the Liao. The Jin had to overcome the difficulties of controlling a multicultural empire composed of territories once ruled by the Liao and Northern Song. The solution of the early Jin government was to establish separate government structures for different ethnic groups. The Jin court maintained

7224-419: The Jurchens as the Liao violently extorted annual tribute from the Jurchen tribes. Leveraging the Jurchens' desire for independence from the Khitans, chief Wugunai (1021–1074) of the Wanyan clan rose to prominence, dominating all of eastern Manchuria from Mount Changbai to the Wuguo tribes. According to tradition, Wugunai was a sixth generation descendant of Hanpu while his father held a military title from

7353-459: The Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the three tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan . Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han tumens and three Khitan tumens, with each tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan generals Shimo Beidi'er , Tabuyir , and Xiao Zhongxi  [ zh ] (Xiao Zhala's son) commanded

7482-401: The Liao court, although the title did not confer or hold any real power. As described, Wugunai was a great warrior, eater, drinker, and lover of women. His grandson Aguda eventually founded the Jin dynasty. The Jin dynasty was created in modern Jilin and Heilongjiang by the Jurchen tribal chieftain Aguda in 1115. According to tradition, Aguda was a descendant of Hanpu . Aguda adopted

7611-430: The Liao dynasty, but they also sent a number of tributary and trade missions to the Song capital of Kaifeng , which the Liao tried unsuccessfully to prevent. Some Jurchens paid tribute to Goryeo and sided with the latter during the Khitan–Goryeo War . They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and for material benefits. In the 11th century there was widespread discontent against Khitan rule among

7740-481: The Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded to be a legitimate dynasty. In 1388, the Mongol throne was taken over by Jorightu Khan Yesüder , a descendant of Arik Böke ( Tolui 's son), with the support of the Oirats. He abolished the Han -style title of former Yuan dynasty. In the following year, one of Uskhal Khan's subjects, Gunashiri, a descendant of Chagatai Khan , founded his own small state called Kara Del in Hami . The following century saw

7869-416: The Ming dynasty in 1387–88. The Yuan loyalists under the Kublaid prince Basalawarmi (the Prince of Liang ) in Yunnan and Guizhou were also defeated and killed by the Ming earlier in 1381–82. In 1380, the Ming invaded Northern Yuan and sacked Karakorum, although they were eventually forced to withdraw. Around 70,000 Mongol captives were taken. In 1387, the Ming defeated the Uriankhai Mongols , and in

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7998-492: The Ming dynasty consisted of sporadic bursts of conflict intermingled with periods of peaceful relations and border trade. The Oirat-backed Örüg Temür Khan (Gulichi) was defeated by Elbeg Khan's son Öljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r. 1408–1412), the protégé of Tamerlane (d. 1405), in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtai chingsang sided with Öljei Temur. The Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) issued Öljei Temür an ultimatum demanding his acceptance of tributary relations to

8127-433: The Ming dynasty not only in the north, but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Zhengde Emperor of the Ming dynasty lost his protectorate Hami to the Turpans at the same time. In 1542, Dayan Khan defeated Ming troops just before his death. Dayan Khan and Mandukhai's nation now stretched from the Siberian tundra and Lake Baikal in the north, across the Gobi , to the edge of the Yellow River and south of it into

8256-455: The Ming dynasty. In 1616, the Jurchens rose to the forefront of East Asian powers under the reign of Nurhaci . Although sharing many similar characteristics with the Mongols, the Jurchens were not nomads, but tribal people who had adopted Chinese agricultural practices. Nurhaci had ambitions to conquer the Ming dynasty and sought allies in the Khorchin Mongols, subjects of Ligdan. The princes of Khorchin , Jarud, and southern Khalkha Mongols made

8385-510: The Ming dynasty. Öljei Temur refused, resulting in the Ming dynasty conducting several campaigns against the Mongols . In 1409, a Ming army of 100,000 entered Mongolia but suffered a defeat against Öljei Temur and Arugtai at the Battle of Kherlen . In the following year, the Yongle Emperor personally led an expedition into Mongolia and defeated the Mongols. After the death of Öljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu ( Mahmud ) (d. 1417) enthroned an Ariq Bökid Delbeg Khan in 1412. Originally

8514-429: The Ming had supported the Oirats in their power struggle with the eastern Mongols, but as the Oirats gained supremacy over them, the Ming withdrew their support. By 1422 Arugtai turned hostile again as the Ming did not grant him the trading privileges he wanted, and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of the Greater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in

8643-420: The Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty. The last sixty years of this period featured the intensive penetration of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongol society. The regime that existed between 1368 and 1635 is known by various names, including the Northern Yuan (dynasty). The dynastic name of " Great Yuan' " ( Chinese : 大元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ) was officially used between 1368 and 1388, as

8772-434: The Mongols and solidified their identity as Chinggisid people. His decision to divide the Six tumens of Eastern Mongolia as fiefs for his sons created decentralized but stable Borjigin rule over the Mongolian Plateau for a century. It is claimed that Batumongke was the son of Bayanmongke (Bayanmunh) ( fl. 1470–1480) the Bolkhu jinong (or crown prince / viceroy ) of the Borjigin clan and Shiker Taiko (Shihir Taihu) of

8901-496: The Mongols were divided into eastern and western parts. The Northern Yuan dynasty was the remnant of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) founded by Kublai Khan . After eliminating the Song dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all of China proper for about a century. Even prior to the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols had ruled Northern China for more than 40 years, since the time they conquered the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234. Yuan rule in China proper began to collapse in 1344 when

9030-408: The Mongols. The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege of Zhongdu in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty . Many Han Chinese and Khitans defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin dynasty. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze and Liu Heima  [ zh ] , and

9159-406: The Mysterious Metropolis of the Great Jin ( Da Jin Xuandu baozang 大金玄都寶藏). Based on a smaller version of the Canon printed by Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125) of the Song, it was completed in 1192 under the direction and support of Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1190–1208). In 1188, Zhangzong's grandfather and predecessor Shizong (r. 1161–1189) ordered for the Song Canon woodblocks to be transferred from

9288-804: The Northern Yuan stretched from the Siberian tundra and Lake Baikal in the north, across the Gobi , to the edge of the Yellow River and south of it into the Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of Manchuria in the East past the Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of Central Asia . Dayan Khan's reorganization of the Mongols into six Eastern Mongol tümens (literally "ten thousand") and four Oirats tümens had far-reaching effects on

9417-629: The Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of Manchuria in the East past the Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of Central Asia . He reorganized the Eastern Mongols into 6 tumens (literally "ten thousand") as follows: They functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of

9546-469: The Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia . Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River . Galdan's wife, Anu , was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with

9675-433: The Qing but was crushed under overwhelming odds. In 1647, Gombodorj met the Qing in battle with 50,000 cavalry and neither side were able to obtain a decisive victory. Although both sides suffered heavy losses, the Mongol army constituted a larger part of their overall forces than the Qing, signalling that the Mongols no longer had the numbers to directly confront the Qing in battle. In the mid-17th century, Gombodorj died and

9804-2488: The Qing dynasty in 1755, and all resistance was crushed by 1758. Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Dayan Khan Dayan Khan ( / ˈ d aɪ ə n x ɑː n / ; Mongolian : Даян Хаан [ˈtajɴ ˈχaːɴ] ), born Batumöngke ( Middle Mongol : [b̥atʰʊ̆møŋkʰĕ] , Modern Mongol : [paʰtmɵŋx] ; Chinese : 巴圖蒙克 Bātúméngkè ; 1472–1517)

9933-444: The Right Wing Tumens, Dayan Khan had Barsubolad enthroned as jinong (晉王) in 1513, abolishing old titles like taishi (太師) and chingsang (丞相) of the Yuan dynasty . He exempted his soldiers from imposts and made them Darqan . According to an ancient Mongolian source, the Mongols were again peaceful thereafter thanks to the policy of Dayan Khan and his khatun Maudukhai. With defeats of Iburai and Ismayil, Dayan and Mandukhai could remove

10062-534: The Song dynasty, but in 1219 they were defeated at the same place by the Yangtze River where Wanyan Liang had been defeated in 1161. The Jin dynasty now faced a two front war that they could not afford. Furthermore, Emperor Aizong won a succession struggle against his brother and then quickly ended the war and went back to the capital. He made peace with the Tanguts of Western Xia, who had been allied with

10191-540: The Song dynasty. Song Han Chinese also defected to the Jin. One crucial mistake that the Song made during this joint attack was the removal of the defensive forest it originally built along the Song-Liao border. Because of the removal of this landscape barrier, in 1126/27, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng ). On 9 January 1127, the Jurchens ransacked

10320-512: The South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respectively. After the rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. However, his decision to divide the six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs-sons in the law of the taijis created a decentralized system of Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for

10449-575: The Three Guards, respectively. After the failed rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were divided in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. Under Dayan Khan or his successors, the Eastern Mongols compelled the Barga to surrender. However, his decision to divide the Six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs, sons-in-law of the taijis, created a decentralized system of Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for

10578-590: The Wise, Guushi and Jimsgene. His sons were made tribal chiefs. Many princes in the Mongolian Plateau were his descendants such as Altan Khan and Ligden Khan . Dayan Khan and his successor Khagans led the Chahar tumen directly. The Chinese chroniclers of the Ming dynasty considered him a Holy Emperor who restored former glory of the Mongol Empire. There is much that is uncertain about Dayan Khan's life after

10707-649: The Yellow River flooded and changed course, causing widespread droughts, flooding, and making the Grand Canal impassable. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion erupted in the Huai River valley, which saw the rise of Zhu Yuanzhang , a Han peasant, who eventually established the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in southern China. In 1368, a Ming army advanced on the Yuan capital Khanbaliq or Dadu (present-day Beijing ). Toghon Temür (r. 1333–1370),

10836-468: The ban on Jurchen nobility marrying outside of their ethnicity was only annulled in 1191. Following the death of Emperor Taizong in 1135, each of the next three emperors were the remaining grandsons of Aguda , each by a different one of his sons. Emperor Xizong ( r.   1135–1149) studied the classics and wrote Chinese poetry. He adopted Han Chinese cultural traditions, but the Jurchen nobles had

10965-473: The course of the Jin's rule, their emperors adapted to Han customs and even fortified the Great Wall against the ascendant Mongol Empire . The Jin also oversaw a number of internal cultural advances, such as the revival of Confucianism . The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded in 1211, inflicting several crushing defeats upon Jin armies. After a sequence of defeats, revolts, defections, and coups over

11094-2253: The death of Mandukhai. The dates of death range from 1517 until 1543. Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Jin dynasty (1115%E2%80%931234) The Jin dynasty ( / dʒ ɪ n / , Chinese : 金朝 ; pinyin : Jīn cháo ), officially known as

11223-559: The definition of "China" to include non-Han peoples in addition to Han people whenever they ruled China. Jin documents indicate that the usage of "China" by dynasties to refer to themselves began earlier than previously thought. The progenitors of the Jin and the Jurchen people were the Mohe people , who lived in what is now Northeast China . The Mohe were a primarily sedentary people who practiced hunting, pig farming, and grew crops such as soybean, wheat, millet, and rice. Horses were rare in

11352-590: The development of Mongol society. The six Eastern Mongol tümens were granted to his 11 sons while the four Oirat tümens were ruled by taishi nobles. His youngest son Gersenji Khongtaiji of the Jalayir became the ruler of the Khalkha Mongols, the largest of the six tümens. The tümens functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies who hoped to receive taijis, descended from Dayan Khan. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to

11481-602: The districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the three Right Wing Tumens. By the end of the 16th century, the Uriankhai Three Guards had lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to the Nonni River . Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas. Although Yuan emperors had previously adopted Buddhism , most Mongols ignored it and remained shamanist in their belief. From 1575,

11610-438: The earth element follows the fire, the dynastic element of the Song, in the sequence of elemental creation. Therefore, this ideological move shows that the Jin regarded the Song reign of China was officially over and themselves as the rightful ruler of China Proper. The decision to choose "earth" (signalling the Jin as successor of the Song) was chosen against the alternative suggestion of linking Jin (literally meaning "gold") with

11739-471: The element of metal. This rejected suggestion was based on a nativist current that distanced the Jin from the Song and interpreted the Jin as an autonomous development rooted in Northeast Asia unrelated to the precedents of Chinese dynasties. However, the emperor dismissed the "metal" suggestion. After taking over northern China, the Jin became increasingly sinicised . Over the span of twenty years,

11868-404: The first time in the 10th century as tribute bearers to the Liao , Later Tang , and Song courts. They practiced hunting, fishing, and kept domestic oxen while their primary export was horses. They had no script, calendar, or offices during the mid-11th century. The Jurchens were minor political actors in the international system at the time. By the 10th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of

11997-544: The following year they achieved decisive victory around the Buir Lake against Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür . The defeat of Uskhal Khan effectively shattered Yuan power in the steppes and allowed the Western Oirat Mongols to rise and become kingmaker of the Northern Yuan realm. The Genghisid (Major descendants of Kublai) rulers of the Northern Yuan also buttressed their claim on China, and held tenaciously to

12126-416: The former eastern region of the Mongol Empire . The Oirats were defeated by the military skill of Mandukhai and control was reclaimed over the Eastern Mongols. Batumongke and his queen Mandukhai led Mongol armies in 1483 against Ismayil Taishi who after the imperial victory over him fled to Hami where he was killed by other Muslims and Turco-Mongols . Dayan Khan's mother Shiker was brought back and given

12255-601: The last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to Shangdu (located in present-day Inner Mongolia ) from Dadu upon the approach of Ming forces. He tried to regain Dadu but failed and died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. The Mongols retreated to Karakorum in the Mongol heartland after the fall of Yingchang in 1370, where they maintained

12384-591: The lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. The History of Jin says that Emperor Shizong took note and attempted to halt these things in 1181. Shizong's grandson, Emperor Zhangzong (r. 1189–1208), venerated Jurchen values, but he also immersed himself in Han Chinese culture and married an ethnic Han Chinese woman. The Taihe Code of law

12513-523: The new Jurchen ruling class constituted around half of a larger pattern of migration southward into northern China. There, many Jurchens were granted land, which was then organised around a social structure based on hereditary military units: a mouke ('company') was a unit consisting of 300 households, and groups of 7–10 moukes were further organised into meng-an ('battalions'). The Jurchen ruling class ruled over an estimated 30 million people. Many Jurchens intermarried with Han Chinese, though

12642-469: The next year Emperor Aizong committed suicide by hanging himself to avoid being captured in the Mongols besieged Caizhou , ending the Jin dynasty in 1234. The territory of the Jin dynasty was to be divided between the Mongols and the Song dynasty. However, due to lingering territorial disputes, the Song dynasty and the Mongols eventually went to war with one another over these territories. The government of

12771-528: The nickname of Wang Chongyang (Wang "Double Yang") and his disciples were retrospectively known as the "seven patriarchs of Quanzhen". The ci poetry that characterized Jin literature was tightly linked to Quanzhen: two-thirds of the ci poetry written in Jin times was composed by Quanzhen Taoists. The Jin state sponsored an edition of the Taoist Canon that is known as the Precious Canon of

12900-686: The non-Chahar tumens. Ligdan died on his way to Qinghai to punish the Gelug order in 1634. His son, Ejei Khan , surrendered to the Qing dynasty and was said to give the Imperial Seal of the Mongols to Qing emperor Hong Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Kublaid descent ruled Northern Yuan. After Ligdan Khan's death in 1634, the Mongols formed four Khanates, from west to east: In 1636, all of Inner Mongolia had already been conquered by

13029-610: The official dynastic title "Great Yuan", known retroactively as the "Northern Yuan". The Ming army pursued the Yuan remnants into the Mongolian steppe in 1372 but was defeated by Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (r. 1370–1378) and his general Köke Temür (d. 1375). In 1375, Naghachu , a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan in Liaoyang province invaded Liaodong with the aim of restoring Mongol power in China proper. Although he continued to hold southern Manchuria , Naghachu eventually surrendered to

13158-489: The permanence of the move, he razed the nobles' residences in Huining Prefecture. Wanyan Liang also reconstructed the former Song capital, Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng ), which had been sacked in 1127, making it the Jin's southern capital. Wanyan Liang also tried to suppress dissent by killing Jurchen nobles, executing 155 princes. To fulfil his dream of becoming the ruler of all China, Wanyan Liang attacked

13287-436: The position of emperor. Historians have consequently referred to him by his posthumous name "Prince of Hailing". Having usurped the throne, Wanyan Liang embarked on the program of legitimising his rule as an emperor of China. In 1153, he moved the empire's main capital from Huining Prefecture (south of present-day Harbin) to the former Liao capital, Yanjing (present-day Beijing ). Four years later, in 1157, to emphasise

13416-754: The power of descendants of the Alans , the Kypchaks and the Hami Muslim warlords from the Northern Yuan court in the Mongolian Plateau . From 1513, Mongol invasions of the Ming Empire recommenced. Dayan Khan built forts in Xuanhua and Datong . He also stationed 30,000 cavalry on Ming territory. His Mongols numbering up to 175,000 invaded the Ming Empire in 1514 and 1517. His sons established

13545-488: The pressure of Mongols from the north. Genghis Khan first led the Mongols into Western Xia territory in 1205 and ravaged it four years later. In 1211 about 50,000 Mongol horsemen invaded the Jin Empire and began absorbing Khitan and Jurchen rebels. The Jin had a large army with 150,000 cavalry but abandoned the "western capital" Datong (see also the Battle of Yehuling ). The next year the Mongols went north and looted

13674-580: The region until the Tang period and pastoralism was not widespread until the 10th century under the domination of the Khitans . The Mohe exported reindeer products and may have ridden them as well. They practiced mass slavery and used the slaves to aid in hunting and agricultural work. The Tang described the Mohe as a fierce and uncultured people who used poisoned arrows. The two most powerful groups of Mohe were

13803-464: The reign of Ligdan Khan (r. 1604–1634), the Eastern Mongol tumens had ceased to function as a unified entity. Ligdan only controlled the Chahar tumen and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols no longer obeyed his authority. Ligdan built a new capital in Chahar land known as Chaghan Baishin (White House) and promoted the building of Buddhist monasteries, translation of Tibetan literature, and trade with

13932-483: The term "Northern Yuan (dynasty)" is generally used to cover the entire period from 1368 to 1635 for historiographical purpose. Apart from "Great Yuan" (before 1388 and during the rule of Esen Taishi), the Mongols called their regime " Ikh Mongol Uls ", meaning the "Great Mongol State". It is also referred to as " Post-Imperial Mongolia ", the " Mongol(ian) Khaganate " or the " Mongol(ian) Khanate " in some modern sources, Although most of these English terms can also refer to

14061-413: The term for "gold" as the name of his state, itself a translation of "Anchuhu" River, which meant "golden" in Jurchen . This river, known as Alechuka in modern Chinese, is a tributary of the Songhua River east of Harbin . Alechuka (阿勒楚喀) is a transliteration of its Manchu name alchuqa (ᠠᠯᠴᡠᡴᠠ), suggesting that the Jurchen name for the river sounded more similar to alchuhu rather than anchuhu . It

14190-421: The three Khitan tumens and the four Han generals Zhang Rou  [ zh ] , Yan Shi  [ zh ] , Shi Tianze and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan. Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived under Jin rule. Inter-ethnic marriage between Han Chinese and Jurchens became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi . Shi Bingzhi married a Jurchen woman (surname Nahe) and

14319-566: The three right wing tumens. Darayisung Gödeng Khan (r. 1547–1557) had to grant titles of khans to his cousins Altan , ruling the Tumed, and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin. Under Tümen Jasagtu Khan (r. 1558–92), the realm was unified again with the aid of Altan Khan, Abtai Sain Khan , and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji of Ordos. Jasagtu defeated the Uriankhai and Daghur Mongols and subjugated

14448-495: The title Dayan meaning "the whole" or “Great Yuan” (大元; "Da Yuan"). Mandukhai and Dayan Khan defeated the Oirats and the taishis who ruled the Yellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, Ulusbold, as jinong (crown prince) over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and

14577-502: The title of Emperor (or Great Khan ) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大元可汗) to resist the Ming who had by this time become the real ruler in China proper. According to the traditional Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule as Emperor of China (see Mandate of Heaven ), so the Ming also denied the Yuan remnants' legitimacy as emperors of China, although

14706-792: The title of not just khan, but also Yuan Emperor. This caused widespread dissent among the Genghisids, and in 1455, a series of revolts resulted in Esen's death. His death started the decline of the Oirats, who would not recover until their rise as the Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century. From Esen's death to 1481 different warlords of the Kharchin , the Belguteids and Ordos Mongols fought over succession and had their Genghisid khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them

14835-539: The title taikhu ( empress dowager ). However, she did not live long enough after that. The imperial power was supported by Unubold (Naybolad), the descendant of Hasar who was the brother of Genghis Khan , and the tribes ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan's brothers were allied. Most of the Four Oirats remaining in Mongolia surrendered and provided troops. Only Khoosai of the Tumed rejected Dayan Khan's supremacy but

14964-541: The top positions. Later in life, Emperor Xizong became an alcoholic and executed many officials for criticising him. He also had Jurchen leaders who opposed him murdered, even those in the Wanyan clan. In 1149 he was murdered by a cabal of relatives and nobles, who made his cousin Wanyan Liang the next Jin emperor. Because of the brutality of both his domestic and foreign policy, Wanyan Liang was posthumously demoted from

15093-624: The tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. In 1628, Ligdan defeated the Khorchins and Jurchen auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Jurchen punitive expedition. Only Tsogt Taiji (1581–1637) supported the Great Khan whilst other nobles of Khalkha remained neutral and inactive. In 1632, Hong Taiji of the Jurchens and his Mongol allies defeated the Chahars and captured Ligdan's family. Ligdan lost any authority he had over

15222-551: The two empires. In the early 1180s, Emperor Shizong instituted a restructuring of 200 meng'an units to remove tax abuses and help Jurchens. Communal farming was encouraged. The Jin Empire prospered and had a large surplus of grain in reserve. Although learned in Chinese classics , Emperor Shizong was also known as a promoter of Jurchen language and culture; during his reign, a number of Chinese classics were translated into Jurchen,

15351-471: The west of Baotou the next year. Arugtai's ally Adai Khan (r. 1425–1438) made a last stand in Ejene before he was murdered too. Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His son Esen Taishi (r. 1438–1454) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his puppet khans, he drove back Moghulistan and crushed the Uriankhai Three Guards, Kara Del and the Jurchens . In 1449 he defeated

15480-514: Was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty , reigning from 1480 to 1517. During his rule, he reunited the Mongols under Chinggisid supremacy. His reigning title, "Dayan", means "the whole" or "Long lasting" in Mongolian language as he was the longest reigning khagan of the unified Mongols. Dayan Khan, eliminated Oirat power and abolished the taishi system used by both local and foreign warlords. Dayan Khan's victory at Dalan Tergin reunified

15609-462: Was common for Chinese translators at the time to use the final -n sound at the end of a Chinese character to transliterate -l , -r , -s , -z etc. at the end of a syllable in foreign words. The Jurchens' early rulers were the Khitan -led Liao dynasty , which had held sway over modern north and northeast China and the Mongolian Plateau , for several centuries. In 1121, the Jurchens entered into

15738-642: Was defeated in turn. The most important achievement of the couple was their defeat of the war-like Oirats who had previously revolted against the rule of the Borjigin Emperors since the 14th century. By 1495, Batumongke won the Three Guards ( Doyin Uriankhai , Ujiyed and Fuyu guard), tributaries of the Ming dynasty , and had them incorporated into his Six tumens. While the Golden Horde lost its power in 1480, Mongol raids on Ming borderlands became virtually constant. Under Dayan Khan they reached

15867-594: Was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasagtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal . Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Outer Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks , meanwhile, attacked and defeated

15996-454: Was not suppressed until 1164; their horses were confiscated so that the rebels had to take up farming. Other Khitan and Xi cavalry units had been incorporated into the Jin army. Because these internal uprisings had severely weakened the Jin's capacity to confront the Southern Song militarily, the Jin court under Emperor Shizong began negotiating for peace. The Treaty of Longxing was signed in 1164, ushering in more than 40 years of peace between

16125-723: Was partly driven by their wars with the Altan Khans. When the Jasagtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungars moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav

16254-460: Was promulgated in 1201 and was based mostly on the Tang Code . In 1207, the Southern Song dynasty attempted an invasion, but the Jin forces effectively repulsed them. In the peace agreement, the Song dynasty had to pay higher annual indemnities and behead Han Tuozhou , the leader of the hawkish faction in the Song imperial court. Starting from the early 13th century, the Jin dynasty began to feel

16383-518: Was succeeded by his young and inexperienced son Chikhundorj. In 1655, the Qing began interfering in Tusheet affairs by appointing their own lamas in Tusheet territory. Thus Outer Mongolia also gradually fell under Qing control. Meanwhile, to the west, about 1600–1620 the Oirats united under Kharkhul . In 1635, the Oirats under Kharkhul's son Erdeni Batur formed the Dzungar Khanate . This unification

16512-515: Was suffering echinococcosis . Mandukhai had him treated and the boy recovered soon. As a direct descendant of Kublai Khan (r. 1260–1294), Mandukhai had him ascend to the throne at the Royal shrine kept by the Chakhar and he became known by the title "Dayan Khan". When he was aged nineteen, she married him, and retained great influence over court and military. They reunified the Mongol retainers of

16641-458: Was the preceding Yuan dynasty . Following the death of Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür , the "Great Yuan" dynastic name along with other Han -style imperial titles were abandoned by his successor Jorightu Khan Yesüder ; hence, the name "Northern Yuan" is sometimes limited in its usage to referencing only the period between 1368 and 1388. The historiographical term "Northern Yuan" in the English language

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