Mongol victory
109-805: The Crisis of the Tumu Fortress , also known as the Tumu Crisis , or the Jisi Incident , was a border conflict between the Oirat Mongols and the Ming dynasty . On 1 September 1449, the Ming army, with a strength of half a million soldiers, suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the much weaker Mongols. In this battle, the Mongols were able to capture the Ming emperor Yingzong . This defeat
218-509: A conflict of interests with powerful Oirat nobles. Although the Oirats shared the same ambition of recovering the glory of Genghis Khan with the new khan, they were well aware of the fractured nature of the Mongol tribes. To buy time before being able to unite them, they first needed to make peace with the Ming dynasty . The Oirats were careful not to enrage the Ming by not officially proclaiming
327-416: A direct threat to Ming. When the Ming refused the Mongols their request to allow additional Mongol envoys to China and a Chinese princess, Esen decided to invade the Ming. Taisun Khan was apprehensive of this and did not support Esen at first. However, he was induced to lead the easternmost force of Uriankhais to Liaodong in 1449. He besieged the city and ravaged its outskirts for 40 days while Esen crushed
436-765: A fifth of the population is thought to have perished during and immediately after the deportation. Around half (97–98,000) of the Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. Mongolian leader Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to arrange migration of the deportees to Mongolia and he met them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under
545-489: A fifth of what was requested. This rejection led the Mongols to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was the Ming's refusal to grant Esen's request for an imperial princess for his son. In July 1449, Esen launched a large-scale invasion of China, with the Mongols advancing in three directions. Toghtoa Bukha Khan and the Uriankhai attacked Liaodong in the east, while the second Mongol army advanced on Xuanfu and
654-664: A force of 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia, but the Oirat state was destroyed by the Soviet Army later that year. The Mongolian government suggested to accept the Mongols of the Soviet Union, including Kalmyks, but the Soviets rejected the proposal. In 1943, the entire population of 120,000 Kalmyks were deported to Siberia by Stalin , accused of supporting invading Axis armies attacking Stalingrad ( Volgograd );
763-505: A major reorganization of Ming authorities and the military, which ultimately contributed to the relative stability of the Ming dynasty for the remainder of the 15th century. Oirats Oirats ( / ˈ ɔɪ r æ t / ; Mongolian : Ойрад [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ) or Oirds (Mongolian: Ойрд [ˈɞe̯ɾə̆t] ; Kalmyk : Өөрд [ˈøːɾə̆t] ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( / ɪ ˈ l uː t / or / ɪ ˈ l j uː θ / ; Chinese : 厄魯特 , Èlǔtè ), are
872-466: A million members, contemporary sources suggest that the actual number was significantly smaller. However, even with optimal conditions, supplying such a large army would have been difficult. The troops were hastily assembled, poorly supplied, and incompetently led, ultimately leading to disaster. The army departed from Beijing on 4 August and headed towards the Juyong Pass . The objective was to make
981-509: A minority, principally in the northern part of the region, numbering 194,500 in 2010, about 50,000 of which are Dongxiangs . They are primarily descendants of the surviving Torghuts and Khoshuts who returned from Kalmykia , and of the Chakhar stationed there as garrison soldiers in the 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of
1090-625: A result, Emperor Yingzong was not able to return until September 1450, remaining in captivity for twelve and a half months. However, he was treated fairly by the Oirats and returned to China as their friend. Upon his return, the Jingtai Emperor felt threatened by Emperor Yingzong and ordered him to stay in the Southern Palace within the Forbidden City , limiting his contact with the outside world. Essentially, Emperor Yingzong
1199-452: A significant influx of Mongols into Datong in the late 1440s, with up to two thousand arriving each year. However, the large number of armed horsemen posed a serious security concern for the Ming authorities. As a result, the Ming government protested against the excessive number of incoming Mongols, causing a sharp deterioration in their relationship. In 1449, the Ming ultimately rejected the Mongols' request for goods and only provided them with
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#17327659204681308-537: A swift and brief march westward, passing through Xuanfu and reaching Datong. The plan was to conduct a rapid campaign in the steppe and then return to Beijing via the southern route. This route was chosen to avoid excessive destruction in the region along the Beijing–Xuanfu–Datong road, as the army would be passing through it twice. The return journey would take them through Yuzhou and the Zijing Pass. From
1417-720: The Bargut , Buzava , Keraites , and Naiman tribes as comprising part of the Dörben Öörd; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks' remaining Buddhist rather than converting to Islam ; or the Kalmyks' remaining in the Altay region when the Turkic tribes migrated further west. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty , Oirat and Eastern Mongols had developed separate identities to
1526-523: The Borjigin family, fled Syria , then under the Mamluks , as they were despised by both Muslim Mongols and local Turks . They were well-received by Egypt 's Sultan , Al-Adil Kitbugha , himself of Oirat origin. Ali Pasha, the governor of Baghdad and head of an Oirat ruling family, went on to murder Ilkhan Arpa Keun , resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Since the Oirats were near both
1635-664: The Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde , they had strong ties with them, and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives. After the expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China, the Oirats reconvened as a loose alliance of the four major western Mongolian tribes (Mongolian: дөрвөн ойрд , дөрвөн ойрaд ). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of the Altai Mountains , northwest of Hami oasis . Gradually, they spread eastwards, annexing territories then under
1744-863: The Dzungar Khanate and Mongolian independence. As C. D. Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender to the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria". Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalry to the Russo-Turkish War in 1768–1769 to gain weapons before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and Catherine
1853-501: The Dzungars in the 1750s and proclaimed rule over the Oirats through a Manchu-Mongol alliance (a series of systematic arranged marriages between princes and princesses of Manchu with those of Khalkha Mongols and Oirat Mongols, which was set up as a royal policy carried out over 300 years), as well as over Khoshut-controlled Tibet. In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, took control of Amdo and tried to assume rule over
1962-480: The Four Oirats . The latter married him to his daughter and wanted to use him as pawn. The Oirats crowned Toghtoa Bukha as their own khagan in 1433. This resulted in half a decade of simultaneous existence of two khans supported by opposing Mongol clans. Toghtoa Bukha Khan was an ambitious leader who aspired to gain real power and regaining the former glory of the Yuan dynasty . His ambitions inevitably lead to
2071-654: The Gansu region where the Mongol satellite states of the Ming, known collectively as the Three Guards, were located. The Fuyu guard was forced to flee, and Esen appointed his own governor in the area. Taisun Khan personally led the attack on the Taining guard. After that, Esen also plundered the Doyin Uriankhai guard, forcing them to surrender. With the submission of the Three Guards, the revived Yuan dynasty became
2180-617: The Hongxi Emperor , who represented the imperial family; Jin Ying , the head of the Directorate of Ceremonial and the highest-ranking eunuch in the absence of Wang Zhen; Minister Wang Zhi who led the government; and Grand Secretary Gao Gu ( 高穀 ). All major decisions were to be postponed until the emperor's return. Despite the deteriorating security situation, the emperor made a sudden decision without any prior preparations. This left
2289-680: The Kuban River . Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-day Kalmykia . The Kalmyks became allies of Russia and a treaty to protect southern Russian borders was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia . By
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#17327659204682398-821: The Mongol campaign against the Nizaris in Iran. The Ilkhan Hulagu and his successor, Abagha , resettled them in Turkey. Then, they took part in the Second Battle of Homs , where the Mongols were defeated. The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supported Ariq Böke against Kublai in the Toluid Civil War . Kublai defeated his younger brother, and they entered the service of the victor. In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen, son-in-law of
2507-835: The Oirat language from Mongolian . The Clear Script remained in use in Kalmykia until the mid-1920s when it was replaced by a Latin alphabet , and later the Cyrillic script . It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital, Elista , and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet in 1941. Some Oirats in China still use the Clear Script as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script. A monument of Zaya Pandita
2616-863: The Potala in Jehol ( Chengde ), (the country residence of the Manchu Emperors ) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for the Swedish explorer Sven Hedin , and was erected at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. It is now in storage in Sweden , where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at
2725-604: The Qing government, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alasha. In 1697, Alasha Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli was appointed Beil (prince), and Alasha was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alasha was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'. In 1707, when Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He
2834-711: The Rouran and Tobgach empires were YELÜ -T Mongolic speakers. Although these two empires encompassed multilingual populations, the language of diplomacy, trade, and culture was an ÖLÜ (YELÜ) dialect of ancient Mongolic descent. When the Tobgach destroyed the Rouran Empire, the Mongolic-speaking Avar people escaped into the Caspian steppes. This displacement triggered a series of events. Settling in
2943-587: The Uriankhai in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the Oirats in the west. In 1434, the leader of the Eastern Mongols, Arughtai , was defeated in battle by the Oirats, giving them control over Mongolia. Their chief, Toghon, solidified their power by marrying his daughter to the young Khan of the Eastern Mongols. After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen inherited
3052-439: The " forest people " in the 13th century. An opinion believes the name derives from Mongolian word oirt meaning "close (as in distance)," as in "close/nearer ones." The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original name Dörben Öörd , meaning "The Allied Four". Perhaps inspired by the designation Dörben Öörd, other Mongols at times used the term "Döchin Mongols" for themselves ("Döchin" meaning forty), but there
3161-455: The Beijing garrison was left with less than 100,000 soldiers and the fate of Datong and Xuanfu was uncertain. The eunuchs urgently requested for a man of reputable character and clear thinking. Reader-in-waiting Xu Cheng, a native of Suzhou known for his military strategy skills and familiarity with the border situation, suggested temporarily moving the capital to the south to keep it safe from
3270-976: The Caucasus around 558, the Mongolic Avars intervened in Germanic tribal conflicts, forming alliances such as with the Lombards to overthrow the Gepidae, who were Byzantine allies. Between 550 and 575, they solidified their presence by establishing the Khanate of the Mongolic Avars (6th to 8th century) in the Caspian and Hungarian steppes. The modern Kalmyks of Kalmykia on the Caspian Sea in southeastern Europe are Oirats. The name derives from Mongolic oi < * hoi ("forest, woods") and ard < * harad ("people"), and they were counted among
3379-547: The Chinese border and invaded Ming China , defeating and destroying the Ming defences at the Great Wall , along with the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, the Zhengtong Emperor was captured at Tumu . The following year, Esen returned the emperor after an unsuccessful ransom attempt. After claiming the title of Khan (something which only blood descendants of Genghis Khan could do), Esen
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3488-415: The Chinese camp. Despite offers to negotiate, Wang Zhen refused and instead ordered the confused Ming army to advance towards the river. A battle ensued between the disorganized Ming army and the vanguard of the Mongol army, with Esen himself choosing not to participate. Only 20,000 Mongols were involved in the battle, but the hungry and thirsty Ming soldiers were unable to put up much resistance. The Ming army
3597-697: The Great Yuan. After Toghan died, Taisun Khan made Toghan's son Esen Taishi a taishi, and his younger brother Agbarjin a jinong . During the reign of Taisun Khan, Esen Taishi subjugated the Jurchens in Manchuria , the Kara Del kingdom around Hami City , and the Uriankhais ( Tuvans ) in Siberia . Despite his ambitions, Taisun Khan was still far more inclined towards peaceful relations with
3706-442: The Great abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The Kazakhs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed their influential nobles. After seven months of travel, only one third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of
3815-456: The Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and slavery under Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper. The region bordering Gansu and west of
3924-434: The Irgay River is called Alxa or Alaša, Alshaa and Mongols who moved there are called Alasha Mongols. Törbaih Güshi Khan 's fourth son, Ayush, was opposed to the Khan's brother Baibagas. Ayush's eldest son is Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle between Galdan Boshigt Khan and Ochirtu Sechen Khan, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli moved to Tsaidam with his 10,000 households. The fifth Dalai Lama wanted land for them from
4033-460: The Khoshut Khanate. He fought against a Manchu- Qing Dynasty army, and was defeated only in the following year and 80,000 people from his tribe were executed by Manchu army due to his "rebellion attempt". By that period, the Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000 and were mainly under the rule of Khalkha Mongol princes who were in a marital alliance with Manchu royal and noble families. Thus, Amdo fell under Manchu domination. The 17th century saw
4142-457: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act of genocide , although many Russian historians treat this and similar deportations as an attempt to prevent local Russian populations and the Soviet army from lynching the entire ethnic group, many of whom supported Germany . Today Kalmyks are trying to revive their language and religion, but
4251-479: The Manchu Qing Empire). The Qing Empire resettled the Kalmyks in five different areas to prevent their revolt and several Kalmyk leaders were soon killed by the Manchus. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate from Kalmykia to Mongolia in the 1920s when a serious famine gripped Kalmykia. On January 22, 1922, Mongolia proposed to accept
4360-454: The Manchu against the Dzungars. In the 17th century, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of the 'Military Revolution' in central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost
4469-405: The Ming armies en route to Beijing . After defeating the Ming army during the Tumu Crisis and capturing the Zhengtong Emperor the Mongols returned north. Taisun Khan treated the captured emperor kindly. Upon realizing that the Ming would not pay a ransom for the captured emperor, the Zhengtong Emperor was returned in 1450. Taisun Khan's consort, the elder sister of Esen, attempted to persuade
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4578-559: The Ming defeated the Qubilaid Öljei Temür and the Borjigid power was weakened. The Borjigid Khans were displaced from power by the Oirats (with Ming help), ruling as puppet-khans until the alliance between the Ming and Oirats ended, and the Yongle Emperor launched a campaign against them. The greatest ruler of the Oirat Confederacy was Esen Taishi ; he led the Oirats from 1438 to 1454, a time in which he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his puppet-khan Taisun Khan . In 1449, Esen Tayisi and Taisun Khan mobilised their cavalry along
4687-433: The Ming dynasty than his commander Esen. He kept a friendly relationship with the Ming court. His taishi, Esen, was even more ambitious and wanted to restore the glory of the Mongol Empire in name and territory. Esen first directed his attention to the Hami Oasis where the Ming ally, Borjigin prince descended from Chagatai Khan , ruled. Repeated raids and threats by Esen forced him to surrender in 1448. Esen then attacked
4796-413: The Ming side before making a decision on what to do with him. Empress Dowager Sun and Empress Qian , who were leading the court, learned of the battle and the emperor's capture on the night of 2–3 September. They promptly sent a message with gifts to Esen. The eunuchs in charge of the Directorate of Ceremonial, Jin Ying and Xing An , relayed the information to the government officials. Panic spread as
4905-453: The Mongols were attempting to capitalize on their valuable plunder. They approached Xuanfu and demanded entry into the city for the emperor and his entourage, which consisted of the Mongol army. However, the defenders of the city responded by shooting at them. The Mongols then retreated to Datong. In a separate message to Beijing, the emperor requested that supplies be provided for the Mongols, hoping that this would satisfy their demands. However,
5014-401: The Mongols, Yu Qian withdrew 80,000 soldiers from Xuanfu and other areas to defend Beijing. He also called in reserves from northern China, including transport and training units and coast guard units. New commanders were appointed and defenses were organized. Meanwhile, Esen once again approached Datong, this time claiming to be defending Emperor Yingzong's right to the throne. However, his offer
5123-414: The Oirats and the Yenisei Kyrgyz ; the Great Khan gave those peoples to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, marry chief Bäki (or his son). There were notable Oirats in the Mongol Empire , such as Arghun Agha and his son, Nowruz . In 1256, a group of the Oirats under Bukha-Temür (Mongolian: Буха-Төмөр, Бөхтөмөр) joined Hulagu's expedition against the Abbasids and participated in
5232-399: The Oirats under Bäki fought against Genghis but were defeated. The Oirats would then fully submit to Mongol rule after their ally, Jamukha , Genghis' childhood friend and later rival, was killed. Subject to the Khan , the Oirats turned themselves into a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207, Jochi , the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes, including
5341-431: The Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. In early modern times, Kho Orlok , tayishi of the Torghuts , and Dalai Tayishi of Dorbets , led their people (200,000–250,000 people, mainly Torghuts) west to the ( Volga River ) in 1607 where they established the Kalmyk Khanate. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshut tribe; other historians believe it more likely that
5450-423: The Prince of Cheng to take on the role of emperor. Although initially hesitant, the prince eventually ascended the throne as the Jingtai Emperor on 17 (or 23) September. He declared his brother as the "emperor emeritus" ( 太上皇帝 ; Taishang Huangdi ), a title that held no real power but was purely honorary. Only one official objected, and he paid for his dissent with his life. In response to the threat of invasion from
5559-407: The Qing ruler, the Kangxi Emperor , let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Rabjur the governor. In 1716, the Kangxi Emperor sent him and his people to Hami , near the border of Qing China and the Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Rabjur died, his eldest son, Denzen, succeeded him. He
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#17327659204685668-403: The Qing sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy their Ming predecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the Eastern Mongols of Manchuria . They then persuaded the Eastern Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves as vassals . Finally, the Eastern Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of
5777-403: The Yuan and thereby obtained help from the Ming court in defeating the Khorchin . Adai Khan of the Khorchin was killed in 1438. In 1439 Toghan installed Toghtoa Bukha as leader of the eastern Mongols under the title of Bogd Khagan Taisun of the Northern Yuan before the eight white yurts of Genghis Khan. Taisun Khan felt that the Ming was already weak enough to be dismissed, and openly proclaimed
5886-399: The Yuan dynasty with himself as Taisun (Taizong; 太宗), a move supported by most Mongols except the Oirats, who felt more time was needed to consolidate their gains. Fortunately, the Ming were indeed too weak to strike into the Mongol heartland like the deceased Yongle Emperor had done in the past. Ming showed its disapproval by calling Taisun Khan of the Northern Yuan instead of Taizong (太宗) of
5995-466: The area, Ming troops were able to gather tens of thousands of firearms, armor, and other equipment left behind by the defeated army. During the battle, the emperor's bodyguard attempted to remove him from the fighting, but were unsuccessful. In the chaos, one of the Ming officers managed to kill Wang Zhen. The emperor was then captured and taken to a Mongol camp near Xuanfu on 3 September. Surprisingly, Esen chose not to kill him and instead decided to inform
6104-418: The border. However, on 30 July, it was reported that Esen had already attacked Datong. Despite not consulting his ministers, Emperor Yingzong ordered the mobilization of the Beijing garrison on 1 August and declared his intention to personally lead a punitive expedition. Emperor Yingzong was known for his love of military parades, often organized for him by Wang Zhen. His self-confidence was further bolstered by
6213-427: The building of palaces, temples, and private residences for officers and eunuchs of the imperial palace. The defense of the northern border was primarily focused on the area between China and the steppe, as the outposts in present-day Inner Mongolia had been abandoned. However, at this time, the Great Wall had not yet been constructed and the border was only guarded by patrols between fortified cities. The defense of
6322-415: The campaign into the steppe would be dangerous. As a result, the expedition was declared victorious and the army turned back on 20 August. Unfortunately, the discipline of the army had already begun to deteriorate. Wang Zhen was also concerned about the impact of the army's passage on his hometown in Yuzhou (present-day Yu County, Hebei ), so he insisted on returning the same way they had come. On 27 August,
6431-499: The captured emperor, to the position of crown prince. This appointment was made on 6 September. Yu Qian took control of the political situation and used his position as the highest-ranking official in the Ministry of War to oversee defense preparations. He ensured that grain was transported from the granaries in Tongzhou , located near Beijing, where almost half of the grain stocks were stored. The Prince of Cheng also supported Yu's plan to gather military units from nearby provinces and
6540-422: The central and eastern Mongol clans proclaimed Adai Khan as the Great Khan shortly after Oyiradai's death in 1425. Toghtoa Bukha was the eldest son of Ajai who was a posthumous birth of Elbeg Khan (d.1399) and Öljeitü the Beauty. Toghtoa Bukha had two younger brothers, Agbarjin and Manduul . While wandering with his brothers in western Mongolia, Toghtoa Bukha met Mahamud's son and successor, Toghan Taishi of
6649-401: The control of the Eastern Mongols. They hoped to reestablish a unified, nomadic rule under their banner of the Four Oirats (the Keraites, Naiman, Barghud, and old Oirats). The only Borjigid ruling tribe was the Khoshuts; the others' rulers were not descendants of Genghis. The Ming dynasty of China had helped the Oirats' rise over the Mongols during the Yongle Emperor's reign after 1410, when
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#17327659204686758-454: The defenses of the passes, while the Ming cavalry cleared the border steppes. The operations of the Ming troops did not have significant results, but they faced difficulties in supplying their troops due to the destruction of the surrounding area. Esen then offered to release Emperor Yingzong, but the Jingtai Emperor was hesitant to accept, as he wanted to solidify his position in the palace and government before allowing his brother to return. As
6867-405: The early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. Russia gradually reduced the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. Policies encouraged establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures where the Kalmyks formerly roamed and fed their livestock. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressed Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771
6976-520: The emperor back, but they lacked the courage to follow through with their plan. On 16 August, the army arrived at the battlefield at Yanghe and discovered the bodies of the fallen soldiers from the battle. Two days later, on 18 August, the Emperor reached Datong. However, during the journey, more soldiers died from starvation than from skirmishes with the enemy. Upon reaching Datong, Wang Zhen received reports from local commanders and information from nearby border garrisons, which convinced him that continuing
7085-474: The enemy and prevent a surprise attack. However, Minister of Rites, Hu Ying, opposed this plan and defended the Yongle Emperor's legacy as his former confidant. He argued that the tombs of the Yongle and Xuande emperors could not be abandoned and that their descendants were bound to follow the will of their ancestors. Vice Minister of War Yu Qian then spoke out against the idea of moving south, stating that whoever suggested it deserved to be executed. This calmed down
7194-402: The fall of the Dzungar Khanate , became small ethnic groups. Kalmyks live on the Caspian steppe. Their settlement and relationship with the Caspian steppes has a long history. In early medieval times, the Mongolic-speaking Elut people established here a powerful khanate of the Avar Elut in the sixth century. The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut ( Chinese : 厄魯特, Èlǔtè ) was in
7303-432: The immigration of the Kalmyks but the Russian government refused. Some 71–72,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine. The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In March 1927, Soviets deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, and Karelia . The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on March 22, 1930. The Oirat state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated
7412-434: The imperial court in the 1440s. In their relationship with China, the Mongols were primarily interested in free trade, specifically in the exchange of horses for tea, silk, and other luxury goods. However, the Ming government imposed restrictions and regulations on trade, limiting it to a few designated border towns, with Datong being the main hub. As Esen's power and influence grew, so did his need for these goods. This led to
7521-423: The khan to make his sister's son the designated heir. The request was denied, causing Taisun and Esen to go to war in 1451. Esen promised Taisun Khan's brother, Agbarjin, the title of khan instead. Esen and Agbarjin besieged Karakorum where Taisun Khan was located. Because most of the eastern Mongols deserted to the Oirats, the Khan's troops were defeated in Turfan and he fled towards the Khentii Khan mountains and
7630-403: The local commanders at Datong also refused to open the gates, despite the emperor's anger. They cited imperial orders as their reason for not surrendering. Regional commander, Liu An, even bravely went to the Mongol camp to meet with the emperor. Eventually, several officials and officers from the city also went to meet with the emperor. However, the city was not surrendered. Liu An only handed over
7739-437: The local silver reserve (140,000 liang ) to the emperor, who then distributed it among the Mongol chieftains. On 4 September, Minister Wang Zhi approached the empress dowager to request her consent for appointing the Prince of Cheng to govern the country. The empress dowager agreed, but limited his authority by labeling it as "special" and "temporary". Additionally, she also promoted the two-year-old Zhu Jianshen , eldest son of
7848-568: The migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the central Asian highlands. Some of the Khoshut and Ölöt tribes joined the migration almost a century later. The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeastern Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by the Nogai Horde . But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, the Nogais fled to Crimea and
7957-405: The monarch's participation in a punitive expedition was an unacceptably risky adventure. Other officials also attempted to dissuade the emperor from joining the campaign. Minister of Personnel Wang Zhi ( 王直 ) wrote a memorandum on behalf of the dissenting officials, arguing that officers were designated for the dangers of war, while the head of the dynasty and the empire, as well as the person on whom
8066-455: The nearby walled city of Huailai , which was only 10.5 km away. It is believed that Wang Zhen's reluctance was due to his desire to keep his baggage with him. Unfortunately, the army faced a lack of water in Tumu, leaving the men and horses thirsty. Esen dispatched troops to block Chinese access to the river south of their camp. By the morning of 1 September, his forces had successfully surrounded
8175-409: The northeast relied on three main fortified cities: Xuanfu , Datong , and Beijing. The fortifications of Beijing were not completed until 1445. In Xuanfu, there were 90,000 soldiers, with 35,000 ready for battle and 55,000 in training. Additionally, there were 25,000 horsemen and 9,000 firearms of various types, as well as 90,000 hand rockets. Datong had a stronger cavalry force, with 35,000 horses, and
8284-459: The oppression of czarist administration forced a larger part of Kalmyks (33,000 households or approximately 170,000 individuals) to migrate to Dzungaria. 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga River to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore
8393-522: The overall situation remained unchanged. Inland, only half of the supposed 2.5 million soldiers in the Weisuo garrisons were actually performing their duties. Military peasants were often exploited by officers, leading to a reliance on inadequate grain supplies from the interior. As a result, the quality of training, weapons, and equipment declined. The Beijing garrison was frequently used for construction projects, such as defensive positions, but more often for
8502-414: The panicking officials, as Yu Qian was supported by leading eunuchs and Grand Secretaries Chen Xun ( 陳循 ) and Shang Lu ( 商輅 ), giving him the upper hand. However, before any action could be taken, approval from above was needed, which was given by Empress Dowager Sun with trepidation. Despite the decision to stay, many officials still fled south, and some even sent their families there for safety. Meanwhile,
8611-540: The point where Oirats called themselves "Four Oirats" while they used the term "Mongols" for those under the Khagans in the east. One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people, in a historical text, can be found in the Secret History of the Mongols , a 13th century chronicle of Genghis Khan 's rise to power. In "The Secret History", the Oirats are counted among the "forest people", and are said to live under
8720-399: The poorly supplied Ming army at Yanghe, which was already in Chinese territory. On the same day, Emperor Yingzong appointed his younger brother Zhu Qiyu, Prince of Cheng, to oversee the administration of the capital during the campaign. Zhu Qiyu was assisted by four representatives from the most influential power groups. These included Prince Consort Commander Jiao Jing ( 焦敬 ), the son-in-law of
8829-497: The recent successes of the Ming troops in the Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns and in suppressing the rebellion of Deng Maoqi . It should also be noted that all previous Ming emperors, with the exception of Jianwen Emperor , personally led armies into battle. Therefore, Wang Zhen used this precedent to support the emperor's decision. The first to protest were Minister of War Kuang Ye ( 鄺埜 ) and his deputy Yu Qian . They believed that
8938-776: The request of the Gelug school, in 1637, Güshi Khan , the leader of the Khoshuts in Koko Nor, defeated Choghtu Khong Tayiji , the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conquered Amdo (present-day Qinghai ). The unification of Tibet followed in the early 1640s, with Güshi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the 5th Dalai Lama and the establishment of the Khoshut Khanate . The title " Dalai Lama " itself
9047-548: The returning troops arrived in Xuanfu. However, just three days later on 30 August, the Mongols launched an attack on the Ming army's rear in Xuanfu, resulting in its destruction. The Mongols then proceeded to Yao'erling, where they also destroyed a newly formed rear guard of 40,000 cavalry under the command of General Zhu Yong ( 朱勇 ). The following day, 31 August, the Ming army set up camp at the post station in Tumu. Despite suggestions from ministers, Wang Zhen refused to seek refuge in
9156-400: The rise of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate of Dzungaria , which stretched from the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan , and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia . It was the last empire of nomads , and was ruled by Choros noblemen. The Transition from Ming to Qing dynasties in China occurred in the mid-17th century, and
9265-560: The rule of a shaman-chief known as bäki . They lived in Tuva and the Mongolian Khövsgöl Province ; the Oirats moved south in the 14th century. In one famous passage, the Oirat chief Qutuqa Beki used a yada , or 'thunder stone', to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfired, however, when an unexpected wind blew the storm back towards him. During the early stages of Genghis' rise to power,
9374-495: The shift towards the Russian language continues. According to the Russian 2010 Census there were 176,800 Kalmyks, of whom only 80,546 could speak the Kalmyk language, a serious decline from the level of the 2002 Census , in which the number of speakers was 153,602 (with a total number of 173,996 people). The Soviet 1989 Census showed 156,386 Kalmyk-speakers with a total number of 173,821 Kalmyks. The Mongols of Xinjiang form
9483-411: The soldiers with only a few hours between 1 and 4 August to prepare for the march. The emperor was accompanied by twenty experienced generals, most of whom held noble titles, and an equal number of high-ranking officials. They were also accompanied by hundreds of lower-ranking dignitaries, with Wang Zhen serving as the de facto commander-in-chief. While it is believed that the expedition consisted of half
9592-475: The south, as well as levies from the metropolitan area. On 7 August, Yu was appointed as Minister of War. On the same day, border commanders were warned against misusing imperial insignia and badges, and commanders in Datong (who had already followed this order) were cautioned against responding to the emperor's requests. The officials in Beijing recognized the need for a clear leader and on 15 September, they urged
9701-712: The southwestern end of Lake Issyk-kul in present-day Kyrgyzstan . In addition to exiling Han criminals to Xinjiang to be slaves of the Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to
9810-553: The strength to take the city and returned to their homeland. Following Esen's failed campaign, the Ming troops were able to drive out the remaining smaller Mongol forces from China. As a result of Esen's defeat, Mongol unity began to crumble rapidly. Just a few days after his departure from Beijing, Toghtoa Bukha Khan sent an envoy with tribute to the Ming court. In the following weeks, the Mongols continued their border raids, sometimes involving numerous detachments. The Ming army, commanded from Beijing by Yu Qian, responded by strengthening
9919-417: The third, led by Esen himself, advanced on Datong. The main objective of this campaign was to capture the fortified cities of Xuanfu and Datong, which would grant the Mongols unrestricted access to the northern regions of China. On 20 July, news of the raid reached Beijing and the emperor responded by ordering four generals and 45,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison to advance to Datong and Xuanfu to protect
10028-422: The title of taishi and ruled over Mongolia. Esen was a more ambitious leader, launching attacks on Hami in 1443 and 1445 and ultimately conquering it in 1448. He also attempted to conquer the Mongol detachments of the Ming army in western Gansu . In the east, his power extended to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, he was seen as a threat by opponents of Wang Zhen , a eunuch who was the most influential person at
10137-586: The use of the Oirat language in the region. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population was wiped out by a combination of warfare and disease during the Manchu Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1755–1757 . The Zunghar population reached 600,000 in 1755. Most of the Choros, Olot , Khoid , Baatud , and Zakhchin Oirats who battled against the Qing were killed by Manchu soldiers and, after
10246-483: The very beginning, chaos and disarray plagued the army. The soldiers trudged on through relentless heavy rain. After seven days, they finally reached Xuanfu, but only after being delayed by a storm. Despite pleas from many to turn back, both in Xuanfu and earlier in Juyong Pass, Wang Zhen urged them to press on. By 12 August, some officials were already discussing the possibility of assassinating Wang Zhen and bringing
10355-593: The westernmost group of the Mongols , whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia , Xinjiang and western Mongolia . The first documented reference to Elut and Yelut was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century. Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes: Dzungar (Choros or Olots / Elut / Yelut / Èlǔtè ), Torghut , Dörbet and Khoshut . The political elite of
10464-401: The world's attention was focused, should not expose themselves to danger. Although the emperor thanked him for his concern, he did not allow himself to be swayed from his plans. The last attempt to stop the emperor was made by the a supervising secretary as the army was leaving the city. He threw himself in front of the emperor's palanquin, but was unsuccessful. On 3 August, Esen's army defeated
10573-588: Was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty , reigning from 1433 to 1452. Under his nominal rule, the Oirats successfully reunited the Mongol tribes and threatened the Ming dynasty to their south for the first time since the Battle of Kherlen in 1409. After the previous khan Oyiradai 's death in 1425, an internecine war lasting several years broke out among the Oirats under Mahamud (Bahamu, Batula) and western Mongol clans led by Gulichi 's family. Meanwhile,
10682-751: Was afraid of the Zunghar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul–Altan. When Denzen died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil. In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejin River and the Ejin River Torghut 'khoshuu' was thus formed. Taisun Khan Taisun Khan ( Mongolian script : ᠳᠠᠶᠢᠰᠤᠩ Mongolian : Тайсун хаан ; Chinese : 岱總汗 ), born Toghtoa Bukha ( Chinese : 脫脫不花 ), (1416–1452)
10791-607: Was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelug tulku lineage by Altan Khan (not to be confused with the Altan Khans of the Khalkha ), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom". Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, the Dzungars invaded Tibet and killed Lha-bzang Khan (or Khoshut Khan ), a grandson of Güshi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet, and conquered the Khoshut Khanate . The Qing Empire defeated
10900-758: Was in Beijing from his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor's groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jün Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alasha Mongols. Mongols who lived along the Ejin River ( Ruo Shui ) descended from Rabjur, a grandson of Torghut Ayuka Khan from the Volga River. In 1698, Rabjur, with his mother, younger sister and 500 people, went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704,
11009-528: Was killed; shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined. From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with the Eastern Mongols , but reunited with them during the rule of Dayan Khan and Tümen Zasagt Khan . The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism around 1615, and it was not long before they participated in the conflict between the Gelug and Karma Kagyu schools. At
11118-487: Was not to gain territory, but rather to establish stable trade relations with China. As a result, Esen quickly established positive relations with the Ming dynasty following the battle. However, his failure to capitalize on the victory and make significant gains led to widespread criticism in Mongolia and weakened his authority. In 1453, he declared himself Khan, but was murdered just two years later. The Tumu Crisis sparked
11227-492: Was one of the biggest military failures in the Ming dynasty's three centuries of existence, and it was largely attributed to the poor leadership of the Ming army. After the death of the Yongle Emperor in 1424, the defense of the northern borders of the Ming dynasty began to deteriorate. Despite complaints from generals about the lack of resources, no action was taken. In 1435 and 1438, some garrisons were reinforced, but
11336-433: Was quickly defeated and the Mongols were able to seize a large amount of weapons and equipment, resulting in the deaths of many Chinese soldiers. Among the casualties were high-ranking officials, including two dukes, two marquises, five counts, several generals, and hundreds of officials. Notable figures such as the old general Zhang Fu and Grand Secretaries Cao Nai ( 曹鼐 ) and Zhang Yi ( 張益 ) were also killed. After reclaiming
11445-493: Was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats. In the 17th century, Zaya Pandita , a Gelug monk of the Khoshut tribe, devised a new writing system called Clear Script for use by Oirats. This system was developed on the basis of the older Mongolian script , but had a more developed system of diacritics to preclude misreading and reflected some lexical and grammatical differences of
11554-490: Was rejected by the garrison at Yanghe. He then marched on Beijing with the intention of placing Emperor Yingzong on the throne. The defenders at the Jijing Pass held off the Mongol army for several days before being outnumbered. Esen finally reached Beijing on 27 October. With 220,000 men at his disposal, Yu Qian was able to fend off the 70,000 Mongol troops. After five days of fighting, the Mongols realized they did not have
11663-497: Was supported by 160,000 men in Beijing. The reserve consisted of garrisons stationed in northeastern China, specifically in North Zhili , Shandong , and Henan . The border patrol battalions were meant to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, but with Xuanfu only 180 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any attack. The Mongols were divided into three groups:
11772-422: Was under house arrest. Although the initial impact of losing the battle and capturing the emperor was significant, the fortified cities were able to hold their ground against the Mongols, preventing them from permanently occupying any territory. Despite the crisis, there were no territorial changes and relations between the two sides returned to their previous state after a few months. The Mongols' main objective
11881-676: Was unveiled on the 400th anniversary of Zaya Pandita's birth, and on 350th anniversary of his creation of the Clear Script. The Oirats share some history, geography, culture and language with the Eastern Mongols , and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity, whether that ruler was of Oirat descent or of Chingissids . Comprising the Khoshut ( Mongolian : "хошууд", hošuud ), Choros or Ölöt ("өөлд", Ööld ), Torghut ("торгууд", Torguud ), and Dörbet ("дөрвөд", Dörvöd ) ethnic groups, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain", by their western Turkic neighbours. Various sources also list
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